==== Bardaale Industry ====
==== Bardaale Industry ====
Following the Eibian industry, the Bardaale industry emerged during the early to [[Northgrippian|mid-Holocene]] and was first identified by Steven Brandt at Gogoshiis Qabe. The Bardaale industry is divided into two phases. Phase 1 (Pre-[[pottery]] phase): Characterized by expedient [[quartz]] bipolar cores, microliths, small scrapers, and occasional [[Grindstone|grindstones]]. These assemblages lack the distinctive pressure-flaked tools typical of the Eibian industry. Phase 2 (Pottery phase): Introduces locally made [[Ceramic|ceramics]], marking the beginning of Holocene [[material culture]] in the region. The Bardaale industry differs from the Eibian in both [[technology]] and [[raw material]] selection. While Eibian tools were made from about 30% exotic [[Chert|cherts]], the Bardaale toolkit was produced almost entirely from locally available quartz and [[limestone]], indicating a shift in resource use and technological organization. Recent AMS radiocarbon results suggest that the transition from the Eibian to Bardaale industries occurred during the terminal Pleistocene, near the end of MIS 2, reflecting a cultural adaptation to changing environmental and climatic conditions in southern Somalia.
Following the Eibian industry, the Bardaale industry emerged during the early to [[Northgrippian|mid-Holocene]] and was first identified by Steven Brandt at Gogoshiis Qabe. The Bardaale industry is divided into two phases. Phase 1 (Pre-[[pottery]] phase): Characterized by expedient [[quartz]] bipolar cores, microliths, small scrapers, and occasional [[Grindstone|grindstones]]. These assemblages lack the distinctive pressure-flaked tools typical of the Eibian industry. Phase 2 (Pottery phase): Introduces locally made [[Ceramic|ceramics]], marking the beginning of Holocene [[material culture]] in the region. The Bardaale industry differs from the Eibian in both [[technology]] and [[raw material]] selection. While Eibian tools were made from about 30% exotic [[Chert|cherts]], the Bardaale toolkit was produced almost entirely from locally available quartz and [[limestone]], indicating a shift in resource use and technological organization. Recent AMS radiocarbon results suggest that the transition from the Eibian to Bardaale industries occurred during the terminal Pleistocene, near the end of MIS 2, reflecting a cultural adaptation to changing environmental and climatic conditions in southern Somalia.
=Ancient Period of Southern Somalia =
The ancient period of southern Somalia refers not to the [[Ancient history|antiquity period]] of the region of southern Somalia, beginning in the [[1st millennium BC|1st millennium BCE]] during the [[Iron Age]] and ending in the [[Late antiquity|late]] [[Late antiquity|antiquity]] ([[6th century]]). The [[Proto-Somali|ancient Somali,]] whose homeland has been placed in northern Somalia, might have expanded southward to southern Somalia and settled there during the [[2nd millennium BC|2nd millennium BCE]]. By the 1st millennium BCE, coastal and inland [[Human settlement|settlements]] were established in southern Somalia. Among one of these settlements appeared to be [[Burgabo]]. Burgabo is an ancient settlement and played a crucial role in the development of southern Somalia. Here, maritime culture and [[Trade route|trade networks]] were developed by the southern ancient Somali. The coastal settlement reached its peak during the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] and [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic periods]], when it served as crucial [[Entrepôt|trade centers]] of southern Somalia. From here, long-distance maritime trade flourished, connecting southern Somalia to [[Northeast Africa|Northeastern Africa]] such as [[ancient Egypt]] during the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] and to the [[Southern Europe|Mediterranean]] [[Southern Europe|Europe]], including [[ancient Greece]] during the [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic period]] and later [[Roman Republic|Roman republic]] and [[Roman Empire|Imperial period]]. The [[archaeological site]] (known by the early [[20th century|20th-century]] name [[Port Dunford]]) contains a number of [[Ruins|ancient ruins]], including several [[Pillar tomb|pillar tombs]]. Prior to its collapse, one of these structures’ [[Column|pillars]] stood 11 meters high, making it the tallest [[tower]] of its kind in the wider region. Additionally, the area features a square edifice covered with a low, [[dome]]-shaped [[Vault (architecture)|vault]], which remains one of the main local standing structures.In 1913, Haywood reportedly found at Port Dunford a large collection of old [[Coin|coins]], along with a vessel similar to [[Pottery of ancient Greece|anciet Greek]] [[amphora]]. A total of 87 coins were recorded, ranging from the [[3rd century BC|3rd century BCE]] to the early [[4th century|4th century CE.]] Among them were 17 [[copper]] coins minted under the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] ([[Ptolemy III Euergetes|Ptolemy III]] to [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes|Ptolemy V]]), five coins of uncertain Greek origin from the [[1st century BC|1st]] to 3rd centuries BCE. Based on these archaeological finds, [[Mortimer Wheeler]] suggested that Port Dunford was likely a [[Trading post|trading station]] from [[Classical antiquity|Classical Antiquity]] to [[Late antiquity|Late Antiquity]]. The most important archaeological site from this early period of the regions history is [[Wargaade Wall|Wargaade Wall.]] Wargaade Wall, or Warqaadi, is an ancient [[Enclosure (archaeology)|stone construction]] in Wargaadhi, [[Hirshabelle]] in Southern Somalia. It enclosed a large settlement in the region. [[Grave|Graves]] and unglazed sherds of [[pottery]] dating from [[Ancient history|antiquity]] have been found during [[Archaeological excavation|excavations]] in the area. The [[Wall|wall’s]] [[building material]] consists of [[Rumble strip|rubble set]] in [[mud]] [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]]. The high wall measures 230 [[Metre|m]] × 210 m (750 ft × 690 ft).
The integration of [[Indian Ocean trade]], as well as [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]] [[commerce]], during this early period played a pivotal role in the developments of the [[1st millennium|1st millennium AD]]. This era saw the [[Urban sprawl|urban expansion]] of the southern Somali coast (along the Somali Sea of the Indian Ocean), which became home to numerous coastal settlements and [[City-state|city-states]].These developments were primarily driven by the need to [[safeguard]] the [[coast]] and to control the [[Trade route|trade routes]] of southern Somalia, in order to facilitate maritime commerce across the Indian Ocean and within the wider [[Indo-Roman trade relations|Indo-Roman trade]] network. This led to [[Political science|political development]] and was accompanied by the rise of a series of coastal city-states. Among them are [[Sarapion]], [[Essina]], and [[Toniki]] which were first mentioned in the [[1st century|1st-century]] [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,]] a [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Periplus|maritime guide]] written by an unknown [[Egyptian Greeks|Greek-speaking Egyptian]] from [[Alexandria]] during the [[Roman Egypt]] period. These cities also appear in the [[2nd century|2nd-century]] [[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]] by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]], where they are [[Ptolemy’s world map|mapped]] and described in detail.These coastal city-states engaged in trade not only with the [[Roman Empire]], but also with the [[Sasanian Empire]], as well as [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic Arabian polities]], especially the [[Himyar|Himyarite Kingdom]] of [[South Arabia]]. Archaeological discoveries at Burgabo identified in both the Periplus and Ptolemy’s Geography as [[Nikon (Somalia)|Nikon]] or Nicon provide concrete [[evidence]] of these commercial links. A total of [[52 (number)|fifty-two]] [[Roman currency|Roman coins]] have been found at the site. This includes [[6|Six]] coins minted during the reigns of early [[Roman emperor|Roman emperors]] from [[Nero]] (54–68 AD) to [[Antoninus Pius]] (138–161 AD), And [[46 (number)|forty-six]] coins dating from the later [[List of Byzantine emperors|Roman period]], minted under [[Emperor|emperors]] ranging from [[Maximinus Daza|Maximinus II]] (reigned 310–313 AD) to [[Constans]] (reigned 337–350 AD). These finds demonstrate a long-standing commercial relationship between the southern [[Coastline of Somalia|Somali coast]] and the [[Culture of ancient Rome|Roman world]], spanning over three centuries of Mediterranean and Indian Ocean trade. Stones engraved with [[Symbol|symbols]] in the ancient [[Himyaritic language|Himyarite script]] were discovered in coastal south-central Somalia, suggesting historical ties between the Himyarite Kingdom and southern anciet Somali city-states. During this period, the southern Somali coast and its network of city-states served as a vital maritime hub connecting [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], [[Iran|Persia]], and the Roman world to the wider Indian Ocean trade system. Other historic coastal settlement also include [[Miandi]], [[Hannassa]], [[Gondal, Somalia|Gondal]], [[Gondershe]], [[Warsheikh]], [[Aw Garweyne]], [[Nimmo, Somalia|Nimmo]], and [[Rasini]]. These city-states also linked the northern Horn of Africa (including what is now northern Somalia) with the [[Swahili coast]] and further into [[Southeast Africa|southeastern Africa]].
== Post–Late Antiquity Period (7th to 9th/10th Century) ==
This period, which spans from the [[7th century|7th]] to the [[9th century|9th]] or [[10th century]], is often referred to as the ”’Post–Late Antiquity Period”’ in the history of southern Somalia or South Somalia, which roughly corresponds to the [[early Middle Ages]] of [[History of Europe|European history]] or the early [[Post-classical history|post-Classical period]] of [[Human history|global history.]] It is characterized by the arrival of [[Islam]] in southern Somalia, followed by the gradual [[Spread of Islam|Islamization]] of the region and its people. During this time, southern Somalia witnessed the establishment of early Islamic political entities, the rise of [[Ulama|Islamic scholars]] (ʿulamaʾ), the construction of [[Mosque|mosques]], the founding of [[Madrasa|madrasas]] (Islamic schools), and the development of [[Aqidah|Islamic theology]] and learning. This era also saw the rise of a distinct Islamic [[Culture of Somalia|Somali]]-[[Islamic culture|Muslim culture]], often associated with the [[Banaadir|Banaadir coast]] (including cities such as [[Mogadishu]], [[Merca|Merka]], and [[Barawa|Baraawe]]), which would go on to become important centers of [[Religion|religious]] [[scholarship]], [[trade]], [[Urban area|urban centre]], and [[culture]] in the wider [[Islamic world]] and an important Islamic entity in [[East Africa|East Africa.]]
== References ==
== References ==
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The history of Southern Somalia, also known as South Somalia, refers to the history of the southern region of the country, comprising the federal member states of Galmudug (the south-central part of Somalia), Jubaland, Hirshabelle, South West State, and the small Banaadir municipality along the southern coast of Somalia (often referred to as the Somali Sea) on the Indian Ocean.
Stone Age and Prehistory of Southern Somalia
[edit]
The south-central part of Somalia (Galmudug) was the first region in southern Somalia to be occupied by humans during the Middle Stone Age (Middle Paleolithic). In the late 19th century, the Italian explorer Robecchi-Bricchetti led an archaeological expedition to investigate prehistoric habitation in this area and discovered a series of flake tools in the district of Hobyo, particularly at the site of Warandi. Based on his description, the artifacts display characteristics of the Levallois or faceted-platform technique. Later archaeological analysis suggests these tools reflect a prepared-core strategy, in which the core and striking platform were shaped to control flake size and form.[1] The Stefanini-Paoli Geological and Zoological Expedition, an Italian scientific mission to Somalia in 1913 with a focus on paleontology, geology, and zoology, collected a series of twenty-nine stone implements from various parts of southern Somalia, later described by Nello Puccioni. Typologically, most artifacts belong to the Levalloiso-Stillbay Complex and some to the Somaliland Magosian and Doian industries.[2] In 1924, Professors Stefanini and Puccioni conducted a joint geological and anthropological expedition that collected additional artifacts from key sites in southern Somalia, including Middle Webi Shebeli, Mudugh, and Hobyo. The artifacts include Levalloisian, Stillbay, Magosian, and Doian material, showing a sequence of Middle to Late Stone Age activity.[2] Later expeditions, including Dr. Giuseppe Tavani’s 1937 Geological Expedition and subsequent analysis by Professor Alberto Carlo Blanc and Tavani, recorded several important southern Somali Stone Age sites, such as Guriagale, Bur Eibe (Bur Heybe), Lugh (Lugh Ferrandi), Bulo Burti, Mahaddeiwein, and Jesomma. These collections contained mostly Levalloiso–Stillbay implements, along with Late Stone Age tools featuring pressure-flaking and other innovations, indicating the emergence of a new cultural phase in southern Somalia.[3]
Doian industry in Southern Somalia
[edit]
Southern Somalia’s inter-riverine region, particularly around the Buur area of Bay province, provides crucial evidence for the transition from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) to the Later Stone Age (LSA) and into the early Holocene. Archaeological research in the area began with the Italian archaeologist Paolo Graziosi in the 1930s, who conducted one of the first professional excavations at the rockshelter site of Gogoshiis Qabe in Buur Heybe, the largest inselberg in the Buur region, which also includes other important inselbergs such as Buur Hakaba. Further excavations were conducted by J. Desmond Clark in the 1950s and later by the Buur Ecological and Archaeological Project (BEAP), led by American archaeologist Steven Brandt in the 1980s. These investigations have made Buur Heybe one of the best-dated and most closely studied archaeological sites in Somalia.
Archaeological Context
[edit]
The Buur Heybe inselberg comprises two major rock shelters, Gogoshiis Qabe and Guli Waabayo, which were excavated extensively from the 1930s to the late 1980s. Graziosi’s excavation at Gogoshiis Qabe revealed a continuous cultural sequence from the lower MSA Stillbay industry through the transitional Magosian phase to the upper LSA Eibian (formerly “Doian”) industry. In 1944, Clark’s work at Guli Waabayo revealed a ~3m deep stratigraphic sequence containing late MSA to early LSA industries, including what he identified as the Magosian and Doian (or “Lower Doian”) phases. Clark’s classifications were among the first attempts to construct a culture-historical framework for the Horn of Africa, though later analyses have refined or revised many of his interpretations.
Approximately 25 km from Buur Heybe lies Buur Hakaba, another major inselberg that includes the open-air Rifle Range Site excavated by Clark and Brandt. Findings from Buur Hakaba align with those from Buur Heybe, indicating shared lithic traditions and a long-term pattern of occupation and technological development across the Buur region.
Radiocarbon Analyses
[edit]
Recent radiocarbon analyses of faunal remains—particularly ostrich eggshells from the Guli Waabayo rockshelter have provided some of the earliest and most continuous evidence of human occupation in the Horn of Africa. Sixteen new and seven previously published radiocarbon dates demonstrate that Guli Waabayo was occupied continuously for approximately 30,000 years, covering much of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 2 (~29–14.5 ka) and the African Humid Period (MIS 1; ~14.5–6 ka). Using Bayesian modeling, researchers identified two major phases of occupation that correlate with the distinct lithic and faunal assemblages found at the site. These findings have refined the chronological model for Guli Waabayo and challenge earlier assumptions about how hunter-gatherer communities adapted to climate fluctuations and arid conditions in East Africa.
Eibian Industry (Formerly “Doian”)
[edit]
The Eibian industry, which Clark originally termed the Doian, represents a late Pleistocene lithic tradition that succeeded the Magosian phase. Excavations by BEAP reclassified this industry under its original name, Eibian, as used by Graziosi. The Eibian industry is characterized by finely made pressure-flaked tools, including prismatic and multi-platform flake/blade cores, occasional Levallois and disc cores, microliths, trihedral rods, scrapers, and retouched points made from exotic chert and local quartz. This industry is pre-ceramic, associated exclusively with wild fauna, and marks one of the earliest fully developed LSA toolkits in the Horn of Africa. Excavations by BEAP confirmed that Clark’s “Doian” and Graziosi’s “Eibian” refer to the same cultural complex, noting that “most of the culture-historical units formulated by Clark more than 30 years ago are in need of revision.
Following the Eibian industry, the Bardaale industry emerged during the early to mid-Holocene and was first identified by Steven Brandt at Gogoshiis Qabe. The Bardaale industry is divided into two phases. Phase 1 (Pre-pottery phase): Characterized by expedient quartz bipolar cores, microliths, small scrapers, and occasional grindstones. These assemblages lack the distinctive pressure-flaked tools typical of the Eibian industry. Phase 2 (Pottery phase): Introduces locally made ceramics, marking the beginning of Holocene material culture in the region. The Bardaale industry differs from the Eibian in both technology and raw material selection. While Eibian tools were made from about 30% exotic cherts, the Bardaale toolkit was produced almost entirely from locally available quartz and limestone, indicating a shift in resource use and technological organization. Recent AMS radiocarbon results suggest that the transition from the Eibian to Bardaale industries occurred during the terminal Pleistocene, near the end of MIS 2, reflecting a cultural adaptation to changing environmental and climatic conditions in southern Somalia.
The ancient period of southern Somalia refers not to the antiquity period of the region of southern Somalia, beginning in the 1st millennium BCE during the Iron Age and ending in the late antiquity (6th century). The ancient Somali, whose homeland has been placed in northern Somalia, might have expanded southward to southern Somalia and settled there during the 2nd millennium BCE. By the 1st millennium BCE, coastal and inland settlements were established in southern Somalia. Among one of these settlements appeared to be Burgabo. Burgabo is an ancient settlement and played a crucial role in the development of southern Somalia. Here, maritime culture and trade networks were developed by the southern ancient Somali. The coastal settlement reached its peak during the Classical and Hellenistic periods, when it served as crucial trade centers of southern Somalia. From here, long-distance maritime trade flourished, connecting southern Somalia to Northeastern Africa such as ancient Egypt during the Ptolemaic dynasty and to the Mediterranean Europe, including ancient Greece during the Hellenistic period and later Roman republic and Imperial period. The archaeological site (known by the early 20th-century name Port Dunford) contains a number of ancient ruins, including several pillar tombs. Prior to its collapse, one of these structures’ pillars stood 11 meters high, making it the tallest tower of its kind in the wider region. Additionally, the area features a square edifice covered with a low, dome-shaped vault, which remains one of the main local standing structures.In 1913, Haywood reportedly found at Port Dunford a large collection of old coins, along with a vessel similar to anciet Greek amphora. A total of 87 coins were recorded, ranging from the 3rd century BCE to the early 4th century CE. Among them were 17 copper coins minted under the Ptolemaic dynasty (Ptolemy III to Ptolemy V), five coins of uncertain Greek origin from the 1st to 3rd centuries BCE. Based on these archaeological finds, Mortimer Wheeler suggested that Port Dunford was likely a trading station from Classical Antiquity to Late Antiquity. The most important archaeological site from this early period of the regions history is Wargaade Wall. Wargaade Wall, or Warqaadi, is an ancient stone construction in Wargaadhi, Hirshabelle in Southern Somalia. It enclosed a large settlement in the region. Graves and unglazed sherds of pottery dating from antiquity have been found during excavations in the area. The wall’s building material consists of rubble set in mud mortar. The high wall measures 230 m × 210 m (750 ft × 690 ft).
The integration of Indian Ocean trade, as well as Greco-Roman commerce, during this early period played a pivotal role in the developments of the 1st millennium AD. This era saw the urban expansion of the southern Somali coast (along the Somali Sea of the Indian Ocean), which became home to numerous coastal settlements and city-states.These developments were primarily driven by the need to safeguard the coast and to control the trade routes of southern Somalia, in order to facilitate maritime commerce across the Indian Ocean and within the wider Indo-Roman trade network. This led to political development and was accompanied by the rise of a series of coastal city-states. Among them are Sarapion, Essina, and Toniki which were first mentioned in the 1st-century Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a Greek maritime guide written by an unknown Greek-speaking Egyptian from Alexandria during the Roman Egypt period. These cities also appear in the 2nd-century Geography by Claudius Ptolemy, where they are mapped and described in detail.These coastal city-states engaged in trade not only with the Roman Empire, but also with the Sasanian Empire, as well as pre-Islamic Arabian polities, especially the Himyarite Kingdom of South Arabia. Archaeological discoveries at Burgabo identified in both the Periplus and Ptolemy’s Geography as Nikon or Nicon provide concrete evidence of these commercial links. A total of fifty-two Roman coins have been found at the site. This includes Six coins minted during the reigns of early Roman emperors from Nero (54–68 AD) to Antoninus Pius (138–161 AD), And forty-six coins dating from the later Roman period, minted under emperors ranging from Maximinus II (reigned 310–313 AD) to Constans (reigned 337–350 AD). These finds demonstrate a long-standing commercial relationship between the southern Somali coast and the Roman world, spanning over three centuries of Mediterranean and Indian Ocean trade. Stones engraved with symbols in the ancient Himyarite script were discovered in coastal south-central Somalia, suggesting historical ties between the Himyarite Kingdom and southern anciet Somali city-states. During this period, the southern Somali coast and its network of city-states served as a vital maritime hub connecting Arabia, Persia, and the Roman world to the wider Indian Ocean trade system. Other historic coastal settlement also include Miandi, Hannassa, Gondal, Gondershe, Warsheikh, Aw Garweyne, Nimmo, and Rasini. These city-states also linked the northern Horn of Africa (including what is now northern Somalia) with the Swahili coast and further into southeastern Africa.
Post–Late Antiquity Period (7th to 9th/10th Century)
[edit]
This period, which spans from the 7th to the 9th or 10th century, is often referred to as the Post–Late Antiquity Period in the history of southern Somalia or South Somalia, which roughly corresponds to the early Middle Ages of European history or the early post-Classical period of global history. It is characterized by the arrival of Islam in southern Somalia, followed by the gradual Islamization of the region and its people. During this time, southern Somalia witnessed the establishment of early Islamic political entities, the rise of Islamic scholars (ʿulamaʾ), the construction of mosques, the founding of madrasas (Islamic schools), and the development of Islamic theology and learning. This era also saw the rise of a distinct Islamic Somali–Muslim culture, often associated with the Banaadir coast (including cities such as Mogadishu, Merka, and Baraawe), which would go on to become important centers of religious scholarship, trade, urban centre, and culture in the wider Islamic world and an important Islamic entity in East Africa.
- ^ Clark, J. D. (1954). The Prehistoric Cultures of the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Stone Age Cultural and Climatic Succession in the Somalilands and Eastern Parts of Abyssinia. Cambridge University Press, Chapter 2: “The Work of Previous Investigators, Somalia (Italian Somaliland)”, p. 16.
- ^ a b Clark, J. D. (1954), p. 17.
- ^ Clark, J. D. (1954), p. 18.
