The world as a stage was expressed among the ancient Greeks, and especially gained popularity among [[Stoicism|Stoic]] and [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] philosophers such as [[Plotinus]] in the [[late antiquity]] of the [[Roman Empire]]. In Neoplatonism, which went on to influence Christianity, the belief of the separate realm of the soul and its transcendence above the instability of worldly affairs influenced philosophers and later, important Christian figures like [[St. Augustine]] to view the world as a theatrical spectacle.
The world as a stage was expressed among the ancient Greeks, and especially gained popularity among [[Stoicism|Stoic]] and [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] philosophers such as [[Plotinus]] in the [[late antiquity]] of the [[Roman Empire]]. In Neoplatonism, which went on to influence Christianity, the belief of the separate realm of the soul and its transcendence above the instability of worldly affairs influenced philosophers and later, important Christian figures like [[St. Augustine]] to view the world as a theatrical spectacle.
The relation of God to humanity and the world was expressed throughout the Middle Ages. [[John of Salisbury]], a 12th-century theologian especially coined the term ”theatrum mundi”, characterized by commenting that saints “despise the theater of this world from the heights of their virtue”. In several chapters of the third book of his ”[[Policraticus]]”, a moral encyclopedia, he meditates on the fact that “the life of man on earth is a comedy, where each forgetting his own plays another’s role”. The comedy takes place on the scene/in the world, while the ”auditorium” is associated to the Christian paradise. Only a few sages, like some Stoic philosophers or the prophets like [[Abraham]] or [[John the Baptist]], are able to accept the role given by God. This acceptation allows them to extract themselves from the ”theatrum mundi”, to adopt a celestial position in the ”auditorium”, and to watch and understand the roles played in the comedy.<ref>John Gillies, ”Shakespeare and the Geography of Difference”, Volume 4 of Cambridge Studies in Renaissance Literature and Culture, Cambridge University Press, 1994. {{ISBN|9780521458535}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HoKybxnJLVMC&pg=PA76 Pages 76-77].</ref>
The metaphor had intercourse with the actual theater, which conversely could be conceived as the world, in microcosm. The idea continued to be expressed throughout the early modern period less as a strictly theological or philosophical metaphor and began inserting itself in various forms of literature and rhetorical expressions, taking on different meanings in different social and political contexts having dramatic overtones. It is possible that it gradually began to lose its religious connotations, and the ”theatrum mundi” took on more of a secular, political aspect. But going back to Plato’s emphasis in ”Laws” of a protagonist embodying the ideal political subject by reflecting the ideal plane, this both political and theological formulation of ”theatrum mundi” was eventually propagated by [[Tertullian]] to the point where the sociological idea of [[role (sociology)|roles]] (or an established form of behavior for individuals within society) descends from it as well. Additionally, it was also cultivated by the transition towards new social forms; for instance, the trappings of the feudal monarchy in England was seen as “empty” and “theatrical” because they occurred in the social context of an ascendant capitalism. It was in England, moreover, where the metaphor was the most developed, although it was also refined in Spain.
The metaphor had intercourse with the actual theater, which conversely could be conceived as the world, in microcosm. The idea continued to be expressed throughout the early modern period less as a strictly theological or philosophical metaphor and began inserting itself in various forms of literature and rhetorical expressions, taking on different meanings in different social and political contexts having dramatic overtones. It is possible that it gradually began to lose its religious connotations, and the ”theatrum mundi” took on more of a secular, political aspect. But going back to Plato’s emphasis in ”Laws” of a protagonist embodying the ideal political subject by reflecting the ideal plane, this both political and theological formulation of ”theatrum mundi” was eventually propagated by [[Tertullian]] to the point where the sociological idea of [[role (sociology)|roles]] (or an established form of behavior for individuals within society) descends from it as well. Additionally, it was also cultivated by the transition towards new social forms; for instance, the trappings of the feudal monarchy in England was seen as “empty” and “theatrical” because they occurred in the social context of an ascendant capitalism. It was in England, moreover, where the metaphor was the most developed, although it was also refined in Spain.
Metaphorical concept
The theater of the world (or theatrum mundi, coined in the 12th century by John of Salisbury) is an “absolute metaphor” relating the real life and a theater. In a circular way. it can be either used to describe the world as a theater stage (cf. “all the world’s a stage” by Shakespeare), or to describe the stage as a representation of the world. This flexibility of the phrase has contributed to its longevity, allowing it to be used by groups with very different religious or political views, even to express anti-theatrical positions. The metaphor can frame life as either tragic or comic, and as either rigidly structured or entirely chaotic.
The very absoluteness of this metaphor allows great flexibility in its interpretation, with dualities abound:
- It can suggest that life is “predetermined” and follows a set script or, conversely, an improvisation where anything is possible;
- It can suggest the stability of life by positing an omnipotent director who controls the action. Or, it can highlight life’s contingency and fragility, portraying it as a “constant flux of roles, players and plots”.
- The metaphor can also imply that the world is completely visible, or it can suggest that a more essential and fundamental reality is hidden “behind the scenes”. In this way, the theatre is presented as a place of both special insight and total illusion.
The metaphor originated in philosophy, not in the theatre itself. Already c. 500 BC, Heraclitus offered a view that compared the world to figures on a board game moved by a boy. The idea is also apparent in Plato’s Allegory of the Cave. The metaphor became prominent in late antiquity, particularly in Stoicism and Neoplatonism. Thinkers like Seneca the Younger and Marcus Aurelius used it to argue for a philosophical acceptance of Fate, which they saw as the “director” of the world’s play. Plotinus in his Enneads multiple times uses the theater analogy to stress the lightness of the world (as compared to the soul).
Early Christianity adapted the trope to direct focus away from the world and toward God. Church Fathers like St. Augustine and John Chrysostom employed the metaphor, often casting God as the writer, director, and audience of the cosmic play. The specific term theatrum mundi was coined in the 12th century by John of Salisbury in his Policraticus.
The metaphor was a popular idea in the Baroque Period. Highlighting the duality of the metaphor in 1637, Gianlorenzo Bernini produced a play in Rome with symmetrical arrangement of real spectators and the staged ones. Two actors addressed audiences, each trying to convince his listeners that the group they are seeing across the stage is merely an illusion.
The metaphor’s use peaked around 1600, especially in England. It became a “general commonplace” and was central to the work of playwrights like Shakespeare. In this era, the metaphor’s religious meaning was often reduced; for instance, Shakespeare’s “All the world’s a stage” speech in As You Like It operates on a “purely immanent level,” lacking any reference to transcendent powers.
The use of the phrase declined in the 18th-19th century, coinciding with the lessening of the theater’s role as mass media.
The metaphor’s popularity fell significantly during the 18th and 19th centuries. However, it saw a revival in the 20th century, where it was critically re-examined by influential dramatists such as Brecht and Beckett.
This metaphysical explanation of the world portrays the world as a theater (apparent in Shakespeare’s saying that “all the world’s a stage”) wherein people are characters and their actions form a drama, with God as the author, specifically for some Christian thinkers. This metaphor can take various forms, some more deterministic than others, and has also been formulated in different fashions, such as the world as chess game by the Persian philosopher Omar Khayyam. In each formulation of the theatrum mundi, though, the world is a sum greater than its parts, where various roles are played by different actors.
The world as a stage was expressed among the ancient Greeks, and especially gained popularity among Stoic and Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus in the late antiquity of the Roman Empire. In Neoplatonism, which went on to influence Christianity, the belief of the separate realm of the soul and its transcendence above the instability of worldly affairs influenced philosophers and later, important Christian figures like St. Augustine to view the world as a theatrical spectacle.
The metaphor had intercourse with the actual theater, which conversely could be conceived as the world, in microcosm. The idea continued to be expressed throughout the early modern period less as a strictly theological or philosophical metaphor and began inserting itself in various forms of literature and rhetorical expressions, taking on different meanings in different social and political contexts having dramatic overtones. It is possible that it gradually began to lose its religious connotations, and the theatrum mundi took on more of a secular, political aspect. But going back to Plato’s emphasis in Laws of a protagonist embodying the ideal political subject by reflecting the ideal plane, this both political and theological formulation of theatrum mundi was eventually propagated by Tertullian to the point where the sociological idea of roles (or an established form of behavior for individuals within society) descends from it as well. Additionally, it was also cultivated by the transition towards new social forms; for instance, the trappings of the feudal monarchy in England was seen as “empty” and “theatrical” because they occurred in the social context of an ascendant capitalism. It was in England, moreover, where the metaphor was the most developed, although it was also refined in Spain.
Transforming with the developments of philosophy and culture, the theatrum mundi became less popular in the 18th and 19th centuries, but more recently reconceptualizations have developed among Situationists and Jean Baudrillard, as well as Brecht, Beckett, and Artaud– connected to the development of the theoretical and artistic frameworks of the Spectacle, theatre of cruelty, and the simulacrum, emphasizing the reification of the world and its relations.
