German Enlightenment: Difference between revisions

 

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[[File:Oer-Weimarer Musenhof.jpg|thumb|”Weimar’s Courtyard of the Muses” (1860) by [[Theobald von Oer]], depicting the German poets [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] in [[Classical Weimar]]]]

#REDIRECT [[Age of Enlightenment#German states]]

The ”’German Enlightenment”’, also known as the ”’German ”Aufklärung””’ ({{langx|de|die deutsche Aufklärung}}), was the 18th-century period of [[the Enlightenment]] in the German states.

[[Prussia]] took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]], Saxony, Hanover, and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states.<ref>Charles W. Ingrao, “A Pre-Revolutionary Sonderweg.” ”German History” 20#3 (2002), pp. 279–286.</ref>

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The recognition and application of Enlightenment cultural, intellectual and spiritual ideals and standards led to a flourishing of art, music, philosophy, science and literature in the German states.

==History==

===Prussian leadership===

In 1685, Margrave [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]] of Prussia issued the [[Edict of Potsdam]] within a week after French king [[Louis XIV]]’s [[Edict of Fontainebleau]], that decreed the abolishment of the 1598 [[Edict of Nantes|concession]] to free religious practice for [[Huguenots]]. Frederick William offered his “co-religionists, who are oppressed and assailed for the sake of the Holy Gospel and its pure doctrine…a secure and free refuge in all Our Lands”.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Edict of Potsdam, October 29, 1685 |url=http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/print_document.cfm?document_id=3636 |access-date=26 March 2019 |publisher=Deutsche Geschichte in Quellen und Darstellung}}</ref> Around 20,000 Huguenot refugees arrived in an immediate wave and settled in the cities, 40% in Berlin, the ducal residence alone. The French Lyceum in Berlin was established in 1689 and the French language had by the end of the 17th century replaced Latin to be spoken universally in international diplomacy. The nobility and the educated middle-class of Prussia and the various German states increasingly used the French language in public conversation in combination with universal cultivated manners.

At the beginning of the 18th century, Prussia had therefore access, like no other German state, to the skill set for the application of pan-European Enlightenment ideas to develop more rational political and administrative institutions.<ref>Charles W. Ingrao, “A Pre-Revolutionary Sonderweg”. ”German History” 20#3 (2002), pp. 279–286.</ref> The princes of Saxony carried out a comprehensive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country’s strong urban structure and influential commercial groups, who modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.<ref>Katrin Keller, “Saxony: Rétablissement and Enlightened Absolutism”. ”German History” 20.3 (2002): 309–331.</ref>

===High German Enlightenment===

By the mid-18th century, the Enlightenment had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science, and literature. The philosopher [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]] had expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and had established German as the prevailing language of philosophical reasoning, scholarly instruction and research).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gagliardo |first=John G. |title=Germany under the Old Regime, 1600–1790 |date=1991 |pages=217–234, 375–395}}</ref>

[[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Gottfried von Herder]] broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the [[Sturm und Drang]] movement of proto-Romanticism. [[Weimar Classicism]] (”Weimarer Klassik”) was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] and [[Friedrich Schiller]], a poet and historian. The theatre principal [[Abel Seyler]] greatly influenced the development of German theatre and promoted serious [[German opera]], new works and experimental productions, and the concept of a national theatre.<ref>[[Wilhelm Kosch]], “Seyler, Abel”, in ”[[Dictionary of German Biography]]”, eds. [[Walther Killy]] and [[Rudolf Vierhaus]], Vol. 9, [[Walter de Gruyter]], 2005, {{ISBN|978-3-11-096629-9}}, p. 308</ref> Herder argued that every group of people had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller’s plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero’s struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny.<ref>{{citation |editor-first=Simon J. |editor-last=Richter |title=The Literature of Weimar Classicism |year=2005}}</ref>

German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], [[Joseph Haydn]], and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Samantha |editor-last=Owens |editor2-last=Reul |editor2-first=Barbara M. |editor3-last=Stockigt |editor3-first=Janice B. |title=Music at German Courts, 1715–1760: Changing Artistic Priorities |year=2011}}</ref>

In remote [[Königsberg]], Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom, and political authority. Kant’s work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought—and indeed all of European philosophy—well into the 20th century.<ref>{{cite book |first=Manfred |last=Kuehn |title=Kant: A Biography |year=2001}}</ref>

===Limits===

German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats, and the middle classes, and it permanently reshaped the culture.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Van Dulmen |editor2-first=Anthony |editor2-last=Williams |title=The Society of the Enlightenment: The Rise of the Middle Class and Enlightenment Culture in Germany |year=1992}}</ref> However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far.<ref>[[Thomas P. Saine]], ”The Problem of Being Modern, or the German Pursuit of Enlightenment from Leibniz to the French Revolution” (1997)</ref> In 1788, Prussia issued an “Edict on Religion” that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity or the Bible. The goal was to avoid theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.<ref>Michael J. Sauter, “The Enlightenment on trial: state service and social discipline in eighteenth-century Germany’s public sphere.” ”Modern Intellectual History” 5.2 (2008): 195–223.</ref>

==By center==

===Berlin Enlightenment ===

{{main|Berlin Enlightenment}}

The Berlin Enlightenment flourished under [[Frederick the Great]].

===Königsberg Enlightenment===

The Königsberg Enlightenment was centered in the city of [[Königsberg]] in [[East Prussia]], then part of the Kingdom of Prussia. Key Königsberg enlighteners include [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Christian Jakob Kraus]]. The [[University of Königsberg]] was a major hub of Enlightenment activity.

===Bavarian Enlightenment===

The key figure of the Bavarian Enlightenment was [[Lorenz von Westenrieder]].<ref name=”Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment”>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment|year=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QEpJAgAAQBAJ|page=605}}</ref>

==References==

{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:History of Germany]]

[[Category:History of Kaliningrad]]

The German Enlightenment, also known as the German Aufklärung (German: die deutsche Aufklärung), was the 18th-century period of the Enlightenment in the German states.

Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states.^[1]

The recognition and application of Enlightenment cultural, intellectual and spiritual ideals and standards led to a flourishing of art, music, philosophy, science and literature in the German states.

In 1685, Margrave Frederick William of Prussia issued the Edict of Potsdam within a week after French king Louis XIV‘s Edict of Fontainebleau, that decreed the abolishment of the 1598 concession to free religious practice for Huguenots. Frederick William offered his “co-religionists, who are oppressed and assailed for the sake of the Holy Gospel and its pure doctrine…a secure and free refuge in all Our Lands”.^[2] Around 20,000 Huguenot refugees arrived in an immediate wave and settled in the cities, 40% in Berlin, the ducal residence alone. The French Lyceum in Berlin was established in 1689 and the French language had by the end of the 17th century replaced Latin to be spoken universally in international diplomacy. The nobility and the educated middle-class of Prussia and the various German states increasingly used the French language in public conversation in combination with universal cultivated manners.

At the beginning of the 18th century, Prussia had therefore access, like no other German state, to the skill set for the application of pan-European Enlightenment ideas to develop more rational political and administrative institutions.^[3] The princes of Saxony carried out a comprehensive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country’s strong urban structure and influential commercial groups, who modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.^[4]

By the mid-18th century, the Enlightenment had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science, and literature. The philosopher Christian Wolff had expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and had established German as the prevailing language of philosophical reasoning, scholarly instruction and research).^[5]

Johann Gottfried von Herder broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the Sturm und Drang movement of proto-Romanticism. Weimar Classicism (Weimarer Klassik) was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller, a poet and historian. The theatre principal Abel Seyler greatly influenced the development of German theatre and promoted serious German opera, new works and experimental productions, and the concept of a national theatre.^[6] Herder argued that every group of people had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller’s plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero’s struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny.^[7]

German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers Johann Sebastian Bach, Joseph Haydn, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.^[8]

In remote Königsberg, Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom, and political authority. Kant’s work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought—and indeed all of European philosophy—well into the 20th century.^[9]

German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats, and the middle classes, and it permanently reshaped the culture.^[10] However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far.^[11] In 1788, Prussia issued an “Edict on Religion” that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity or the Bible. The goal was to avoid theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.^[12]

The Berlin Enlightenment flourished under Frederick the Great.

The Königsberg Enlightenment was centered in the city of Königsberg in East Prussia, then part of the Kingdom of Prussia. Key Königsberg enlighteners include Immanuel Kant and Christian Jakob Kraus. The University of Königsberg was a major hub of Enlightenment activity.

The key figure of the Bavarian Enlightenment was Lorenz von Westenrieder.^[13]