Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823): Difference between revisions

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After Abbas Mirza’s successful winter campaign, he withdrew most of his forces to Tabriz while leaving garrisons in significant towns and cities.<ref name=”:0″>{{Cite book |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1294638373 |title=War and peace in Qajar Persia: Implications Past and Present |date=30 January 2008 |isbn=978-1-134-10307-2 |editor-last=Farmanfarmaian |editor-first=Roxane |oclc=1294638373}}</ref> The Turks began to organize a counterattack, organized under the new serasker, Mohammad Amin Rauf Pasha. They planned to steamroll the garrisons in Eastern Anatolia and occupy parts of Azerbaijan to prevent Iran from gathering their troops, and force a peace on Ottoman terms.<ref name=”:0″ /> However, the fortress of Toprah Kaleh stood in the way of Ottoman plans due to its strategic location. The Sardar of Erevan kept raiding Ottoman positions around Toprah Kaleh, allowing Abbas Mirza precious time to recover forces to relieve the fortress. The resulting battle in May 1822 was a defeat for the Ottomans, but the Iranians were unable to take advantage of their success.<ref name=”:0″ />

After Abbas Mirza’s successful winter campaign, he withdrew most of his forces to Tabriz while leaving garrisons in significant towns and cities.<ref name=”:0″>{{Cite book |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1294638373 |title=War and peace in Qajar Persia: Implications Past and Present |date=30 January 2008 |isbn=978-1-134-10307-2 |editor-last=Farmanfarmaian |editor-first=Roxane |oclc=1294638373}}</ref> The Turks began to organize a counterattack, organized under the new serasker, Mohammad Amin Rauf Pasha. They planned to steamroll the garrisons in Eastern Anatolia and occupy parts of Azerbaijan to prevent Iran from gathering their troops, and force a peace on Ottoman terms.<ref name=”:0″ /> However, the fortress of Toprah Kaleh stood in the way of Ottoman plans due to its strategic location. The Sardar of Erevan kept raiding Ottoman positions around Toprah Kaleh, allowing Abbas Mirza precious time to recover forces to relieve the fortress. The resulting battle in May 1822 was a defeat for the Ottomans, but the Iranians were unable to take advantage of their success.<ref name=”:0″ />

A second counter attacked was organized by the Ottoman “wali” (governor) of Baghdad, [[Dawud Pasha of Baghdad|Dawud Pasha]], who invaded Iran. The invasion was unsuccessful and he was pursued by the Qajar army under the lead of the Shah’s oldest son, prince [[Mohammad-Ali Mirza Dowlatshah|Mohammad Ali Mirza]].<ref name=”Cenage”>{{cite web |last= |first= |title=Turko–Iranian War (1821–1823) |work=[[Cengage Group]] |via=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |access-date=2025-03-02 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/turko-iranian-war-1821-1823 }}</ref> The Ottomans retreated back to their own territory, while the Iranians took [[Shahrezur]] along the [[Sirvan River]], supported by Feili Kurds and Lurs who defeated the Ottoman opposition and forced them to further retreat to [[Kirkuk]].<ref name=”Farrokh”>{{cite book |last=Farrokh |first=Kaveh |title=Iran At War 1500-1988 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2011 |page=204 |url=https://archive.org/details/ogm-iran-at-war-1500-1988/page/204/mode/2up?q=1821 }}</ref> Mohammad Ali Mirza conquered [[Sulayméniyah]] and following the capture of [[Samarra]], besieged Baghdad with 40,000 infantry and artillery. The Ottoman retreat ended here, as Dawud Pasha successfully defended the city with 3,900 infantry and 8,800 cavalry, preventing the Qajars from taking strategically important Baghdad. Combined with the effects of a cholera outbreak, Mohammad Ali Mirza was ultimately forced to lift the siege.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tekdemir |first=Arş Gör Aziz |date=2009-12-01 |title=XIX. YÜZYILIN İLK ÇEYREĞİNDE OSMANLI-İRAN İHTİLAFLARI VE 1821–1823 SAVAŞI |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/kdeniz/article/175623 |journal=Karadeniz Uluslararası Bilimsel Dergi |language=tr |issue=4 |pages=83 |issn=1308-6200}}</ref><ref name=”Farrokh” /><ref name=”Azap2020″>Azap, Eralp Yaşar. “The Epidemic that Emerged during the 1820-1823 Ottoman-Iran War and Its Impact on the War.” Hazine-I Evrak Arşiv ve Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi 2, no. 2 (December 2020): 84-88</ref><ref name=”Al-Bustani1979″>Al-Bustani, 1979, p. 65</ref><ref name=”Azap2022″>Azap, E. Y. (2022). “Military Reforms and Their Consequences during the Reign of Fath Ali Shah (1797-1834) in Iran.” Journal of Language and History-Geography, Ankara University, 62(2), 1122-1123.</ref> Mohammad Ali Mirza himself caught the disease during the siege, and died on November 22, while in [[Ctesiphon]].<ref name=”Farrokh” /><ref>{{cite book |last=Hambly |first=Gavin R. G. |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |volume=7 |chapter=Ch. 4 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1968 |page=163 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0007unse_b4w5/page/162/mode/2up?q=1821 }}</ref>

A second counter attacked was organized by the Ottoman “wali” (governor) of Baghdad, [[Dawud Pasha of Baghdad|Dawud Pasha]], who invaded Iran. The invasion was unsuccessful and he was pursued by the Qajar army under the lead of the Shah’s oldest son, prince [[Mohammad-Ali Mirza Dowlatshah|Mohammad Ali Mirza]].<ref name=”Cenage”>{{cite web |last= |first= |title=Turko–Iranian War (1821–1823) |work=[[Cengage Group]] |via=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |access-date=2025-03-02 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/turko-iranian-war-1821-1823 }}</ref> The Ottomans retreated back to their own territory, while the Iranians took [[Shahrezur]] along the [[Sirvan River]], supported by Feili Kurds and Lurs who defeated the Ottoman opposition and forced them to further retreat to [[Kirkuk]].<ref name=”Farrokh”>{{cite book |last=Farrokh |first=Kaveh |title=Iran At War 1500-1988 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2011 |page=204 |url=https://archive.org/details/ogm-iran-at-war-1500-1988/page/204/mode/2up?q=1821 }}</ref> Mohammad Ali Mirza conquered [[Sulayméniyah]] and following the capture of [[Samarra]], besieged Baghdad with 40,000 infantry and artillery. The Ottoman retreat ended here, as Dawud Pasha successfully defended the city with 3,900 infantry and 8,800 cavalry, preventing the Qajars from taking strategically important Baghdad. Combined with the effects of a cholera outbreak, Mohammad Ali Mirza was ultimately forced to lift the siege.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tekdemir |first=Arş Gör Aziz |date=2009-12-01 |title=XIX. YÜZYILIN İLK ÇEYREĞİNDE OSMANLI-İRAN İHTİLAFLARI VE 1821–1823 SAVAŞI |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/kdeniz/article/175623 |journal=Karadeniz Uluslararası Bilimsel Dergi |language=tr |issue=4 |pages=83 |issn=1308-6200}}</ref><ref name=”Azap2020″>Azap, Eralp Yaşar. “The Epidemic that Emerged during the 1820-1823 Ottoman-Iran War and Its Impact on the War.” Hazine-I Evrak Arşiv ve Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi 2, no. 2 (December 2020): 84-88</ref><ref name=”Al-Bustani1979″>Al-Bustani, 1979, p. 65</ref><ref name=”Azap2022″>Azap, E. Y. (2022). “Military Reforms and Their Consequences during the Reign of Fath Ali Shah (1797-1834) in Iran.” Journal of Language and History-Geography, Ankara University, 62(2), 1122-1123.</ref> Mohammad Ali Mirza himself caught the disease during the siege, and died on November 22, while in [[Ctesiphon]].<ref name=”Farrokh” /><ref>{{cite book |last=Hambly |first=Gavin R. G. |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |volume=7 |chapter=Ch. 4 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1968 |page=163 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0007unse_b4w5/page/162/mode/2up?q=1821 }}</ref>

Meanwhile, Abbas Mirza marched into eastern Anatolia with 30,000 troops and met an Ottoman army of 50,000 at the Battle of Erzurum.{{when|date=March 2025|reason=When exactly did the battle take place?}} Abbas Mirza scored a crushing victory over the Ottomans despite being severely outnumbered and his army suffering from a cholera epidemic.{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=1140}}

Meanwhile, Abbas Mirza marched into eastern Anatolia with 30,000 troops and met an Ottoman army of 50,000 at the Battle of Erzurum.{{when|date=March 2025|reason=When exactly did the battle take place?}} Abbas Mirza scored a crushing victory over the Ottomans despite being severely outnumbered and his army suffering from a cholera epidemic.{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=1140}}

Series of conflicts fought between the Ottoman Empire and Qajar Iran from 1821 to 1823

The Ottoman–Persian War of 1821–1823[a] was fought between the Ottoman Empire and Qajar Iran from 1821 to 1823.

Background

Tensions between the two empires had been rising due to the Ottoman Empire’s harboring of rebellious tribesmen from the Iranian Azerbaijan Province. The issues concerning the Kurdish borderland tribes such as the Haydaran and Sipki tribes had complicated the relations between the two empires. For instance, Iran launched a military campaign against Dervish Pasha, the muhafiz of Van, when he refused to return the Sipki Kurdish who took refuge and settled in Archesh.

The Ottoman-Iranian War that began in 1821 was also part of a series of wars between the two empires, which was attributed to the influences of foreign powers, particularly Great Britain and the Russian Empire. The Iranians and the Ottomans were within their respective spheres of influence and were drawn to their rivalry. The Russian Empire was attempting to put pressure on the Ottoman Empire, which was then at war with the Greeks.

War

Crown Prince Abbas Mirza of Iran, at the instigation of the Russian Empire, invaded Western Armenia and the areas surrounding the Iranian province of Azerbaijan. On 10 September 1821, the Iranian forces marched out of Tabriz towards the border.[10] On 16 September, Iranian forces crossed the border at Gürbulak and stormed the Bayezid Fortress in November 1821, securing Iranian supply routes. As the Iranian army marched into the region, they went after the Heydaran tribesmen, who would flee to Diyarbakir.[11]

After Abbas Mirza’s successful winter campaign, he withdrew most of his forces to Tabriz while leaving garrisons in significant towns and cities.[12] The Turks began to organize a counterattack, organized under the new serasker, Mohammad Amin Rauf Pasha. They planned to steamroll the garrisons in Eastern Anatolia and occupy parts of Azerbaijan to prevent Iran from gathering their troops, and force a peace on Ottoman terms.[12] However, the fortress of Toprah Kaleh stood in the way of Ottoman plans due to its strategic location. The Sardar of Erevan kept raiding Ottoman positions around Toprah Kaleh, allowing Abbas Mirza precious time to recover forces to relieve the fortress. The resulting battle in May 1822 was a defeat for the Ottomans, but the Iranians were unable to take advantage of their success.[12]

A second counter attacked was organized by the Ottoman “wali” (governor) of Baghdad, Dawud Pasha, who invaded Iran. The invasion was unsuccessful and he was pursued by the Qajar army under the lead of the Shah’s oldest son, prince Mohammad Ali Mirza.[13] The Ottomans retreated back to their own territory, while the Iranians took Shahrezur along the Sirvan River, supported by Feili Kurds and Lurs who defeated the Ottoman opposition and forced them to further retreat to Kirkuk.[14] Mohammad Ali Mirza conquered Sulayméniyah and following the capture of Samarra, besieged Baghdad with 40,000 infantry and artillery. The Ottoman retreat ended here, as Dawud Pasha successfully defended the city with 3,900 infantry and 8,800 cavalry, preventing the Qajars from taking strategically important Baghdad. Combined with the effects of a cholera outbreak, Mohammad Ali Mirza was ultimately forced to lift the siege.[14][15][16][17][18] Mohammad Ali Mirza himself caught the disease during the siege, and died on November 22, while in Ctesiphon.[14][19]

Meanwhile, Abbas Mirza marched into eastern Anatolia with 30,000 troops and met an Ottoman army of 50,000 at the Battle of Erzurum.[when?] Abbas Mirza scored a crushing victory over the Ottomans despite being severely outnumbered and his army suffering from a cholera epidemic.

Result

Peace was not concluded until the Treaty of Erzurum two years later; both sides recognized the previous borders established by the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639, with no territorial changes. Also included in the treaty, was the guaranteed access for Persian pilgrims to the holy sites of Mecca and Medina within the Ottoman Empire.

Notes

  1. ^ Also known as the Ottoman–Persian War of 1821–1823, or Turko–Persian War 1821–1823.

References

  1. ^ Farmanfarmaian, Roxane, ed. (30 January 2008). War and peace in Qajar Persia implications past and present. ISBN 978-1-134-10307-2. OCLC 1294638373.
  2. ^ Ateş, Sabri (30 July 2015). The Ottoman-Iranian Borderlands: Making a Boundary, 1843–1914. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-107-54577-9. OCLC 980068476. The culmination of frontier raids carried out by Abbas Mirza and Dawlatshah, the war of 1821–22 was inconclusive, despite Iran’s many victories. The emergence of cholera, mutual concerns about Russia’s advance, the war in Greece, and pressure from Iranian merchants trading with the Ottoman Empire all helped bring hostilities to an end. Abbas Mirza claimed he had waged the campaign not for land or against the sultan, but in defense of his family’s honor; however, Sultan Mahmud II remained upset with Tehran and considered a counter-campaign. Abbas Mirza’s pleas to Stratford Canning, the powerful British ambassador in Istanbul, might have changed his mind. Following negotiations between Rauf Pasha and the Iranian envoy, Mirza Mohammad Ali Ashtiyani, on July 28, 1823, the first Treaty of Erzurum was signed.
  3. ^ Azap, Eralp Yaşar (2023). Şah Mat: 1820–1823 Osmanlı-İran Savaşı (Siyaset–Harekât–Lojistik / Organizasyon). İstanbul: Ötüken Neşriyat A.Ş., p. 286. ISBN 978-625-408-517-8.
  4. ^ Keçeci, Serkan (October 2016). The grand strategy of the Russian Empire in the Caucasus against its southern rivals (1821-1833) (phd thesis). The London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE).
  5. ^ Çiftçi, Erdal (April 2018). Fragile alliances in the Ottoman East: the Heyderan Tribe and the empire, 1820 – 1929 (Thesis). Bilkent University. hdl:11693/46654.
  6. ^ a b c Farmanfarmaian, Roxane, ed. (30 January 2008). War and peace in Qajar Persia: Implications Past and Present. ISBN 978-1-134-10307-2. OCLC 1294638373.
  7. ^ “Turko–Iranian War (1821–1823)”. Cengage Group. Retrieved 2 March 2025 – via Encyclopedia.com.
  8. ^ a b c Farrokh, Kaveh (2011). Iran At War 1500-1988. Osprey Publishing. p. 204.
  9. ^ Tekdemir, Arş Gör Aziz (1 December 2009). “XIX. YÜZYILIN İLK ÇEYREĞİNDE OSMANLI-İRAN İHTİLAFLARI VE 1821–1823 SAVAŞI”. Karadeniz Uluslararası Bilimsel Dergi (in Turkish) (4): 83. ISSN 1308-6200.
  10. ^ Azap, Eralp Yaşar. “The Epidemic that Emerged during the 1820-1823 Ottoman-Iran War and Its Impact on the War.” Hazine-I Evrak Arşiv ve Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi 2, no. 2 (December 2020): 84-88
  11. ^ Al-Bustani, 1979, p. 65
  12. ^ Azap, E. Y. (2022). “Military Reforms and Their Consequences during the Reign of Fath Ali Shah (1797-1834) in Iran.” Journal of Language and History-Geography, Ankara University, 62(2), 1122-1123.
  13. ^ Hambly, Gavin R. G. (1968). “Ch. 4”. The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. p. 163.

Sources

  • Ateş, Sabri (2013). Ottoman-Iranian Borderlands: Making a Boundary, 1843–1914. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107033658.
  • Williamson, Graham (2008). “The Turko-Persian War of 1821-1823: winning the war but losing the peace”. In Farmanfarmaian, Roxane (ed.). War and Peace in Qajar Persia: Implications Past and Present. Routledge. ISBN 9781134103089.
  • Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598843361.
  • Sicker, Martin (2001). The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Praeger.
  • Sorkhabi, Rasoul (2017). Tectonic Evolution, Collision, and Seismicity of Southwest Asia: In Honor of Manuel Berberian’s Forty-Five Years of Research Contributions. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America. ISBN 9780813725253.
  • Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2010). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle. Vol. III. ABC-CLIO.
  • Ward, Steven R. (2009). Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press.

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