User:Billie2000/sandbox: Difference between revisions – Wikipedia

 

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=== Mechanisms of Biodiversity on Climate resilience ===

=== Mechanisms of Biodiversity on Climate resilience ===

”’[[Biodiversity]]”’ is fundamental to multiple ecological mechanisms that strengthen the ”’[[Ecological stability|stability]]”’ and adaptability of ecosystems<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oliver |first=Tom H. |last2=Heard |first2=Matthew S. |last3=Isaac |first3=Nick J.B. |last4=Roy |first4=David B. |last5=Procter |first5=Deborah |last6=Eigenbrod |first6=Felix |last7=Freckleton |first7=Rob |last8=Hector |first8=Andy |last9=Orme |first9=C. David L. |last10=Petchey |first10=Owen L. |last11=Proença |first11=Vânia |last12=Raffaelli |first12=David |last13=Suttle |first13=K. Blake |last14=Mace |first14=Georgina M. |last15=Martín-López |first15=Berta |date=2015-11 |title=Biodiversity and Resilience of Ecosystem Functions |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169534715002189 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |language=en |volume=30 |issue=11 |pages=673–684 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2015.08.009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reusch |first=Thorsten B. H. |last2=Ehlers |first2=Anneli |last3=Hämmerli |first3=August |last4=Worm |first4=Boris |date=2005-02-22 |title=Ecosystem recovery after climatic extremes enhanced by genotypic diversity |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.0500008102 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=102 |issue=8 |pages=2826–2831 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0500008102 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=549506 |pmid=15710890}}</ref>. [[Species richness]] increases [[Functional group (ecology)|”’functional diversity”’]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tilman |first=David |last2=Knops |first2=Johannes |last3=Wedin |first3=David |last4=Reich |first4=Peter |last5=Ritchie |first5=Mark |last6=Siemann |first6=Evan |date=1997-08-29 |title=The Influence of Functional Diversity and Composition on Ecosystem Processes |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.277.5330.1300 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=277 |issue=5330 |pages=1300–1302 |doi=10.1126/science.277.5330.1300 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>. Different organisms living together can perform complementary roles in ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and water regulation, which can contribute to the stabilisation of ecosystem processes under climate stress, a mechanism known as [[Ecological niche|niche]] complementarity<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Godoy |first=Oscar |last2=Gómez-Aparicio |first2=Lorena |last3=Matías |first3=Luis |last4=Pérez-Ramos |first4=Ignacio M. |last5=Allan |first5=Eric |date=2020-08-21 |title=An excess of niche differences maximizes ecosystem functioning |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-17960-5 |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=4180 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17960-5 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=7442808 |pmid=32826915}}</ref>.  An ecosystem with high plant diversity can, for example, enhance transpiration and soil moisture regulation as the variety of different leaf traits and root depths can promote more efficient water use, which in turn can reduce drought stress and mitigate heat impact<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grossiord |first=Charlotte |last2=Granier |first2=André |last3=Ratcliffe |first3=Sophia |last4=Bouriaud |first4=Olivier |last5=Bruelheide |first5=Helge |last6=Chećko |first6=Ewa |last7=Forrester |first7=David Ian |last8=Dawud |first8=Seid Muhie |last9=Finér |first9=Leena |last10=Pollastrini |first10=Martina |last11=Scherer-Lorenzen |first11=Michael |last12=Valladares |first12=Fernando |last13=Bonal |first13=Damien |last14=Gessler |first14=Arthur |date=2014-10-14 |title=Tree diversity does not always improve resistance of forest ecosystems to drought |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1411970111 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=111 |issue=41 |pages=14812–14815 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1411970111 |pmc=4205672 |pmid=25267642}}</ref>. Climate change is associated with higher [[Pathogen|”’pathogen”’]] pressure on ecosystems<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harvell |first=C. Drew |last2=Mitchell |first2=Charles E. |last3=Ward |first3=Jessica R. |last4=Altizer |first4=Sonia |last5=Dobson |first5=Andrew P. |last6=Ostfeld |first6=Richard S. |last7=Samuel |first7=Michael D. |date=2002-06-21 |title=Climate Warming and Disease Risks for Terrestrial and Marine Biota |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1063699 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=296 |issue=5576 |pages=2158–2162 |doi=10.1126/science.1063699 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>.  In many ecosystems higher biodiversity has been shown to contribute to greater ”’[[Ecological resilience|resilience]]”’ to pests and diseases, as diversity in host traits and interactions can interrupt disease spread and reduce the severity of the outbreak compared to low diversity systems<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keesing |first=Felicia |last2=Belden |first2=Lisa K. |last3=Daszak |first3=Peter |last4=Dobson |first4=Andrew |last5=Harvell |first5=C. Drew |last6=Holt |first6=Robert D. |last7=Hudson |first7=Peter |last8=Jolles |first8=Anna |last9=Jones |first9=Kate E. |last10=Mitchell |first10=Charles E. |last11=Myers |first11=Samuel S. |last12=Bogich |first12=Tiffany |last13=Ostfeld |first13=Richard S. |date=2010-12 |title=Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature09575 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=468 |issue=7324 |pages=647–652 |doi=10.1038/nature09575 |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=7094913 |pmid=21124449}}</ref>. ”’[[Genetic diversity]]”’ within a species further enhances its adaptive capacity by providing a range of traits that allow populations to persist under changing temperature and precipitation regimes<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reusch |first=Thorsten B. H. |last2=Ehlers |first2=Anneli |last3=Hämmerli |first3=August |last4=Worm |first4=Boris |date=2005-02-22 |title=Ecosystem recovery after climatic extremes enhanced by genotypic diversity |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.0500008102 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=102 |issue=8 |pages=2826–2831 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0500008102 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=549506 |pmid=15710890}}</ref>. Furthermore, more complex ecosystems with higher biodiversity support [[Mutualism (biology)|”’mutualistic”’]] interactions (like [[Pollination|”’pollination”’]] or [[Mycorrhizal network|”’mycorrhizal networks”’]]), which can enhance nutrient uptake and support overall productivity and resilience of ecosystems<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Der Heijden |first=Marcel G. A. |last2=Bardgett |first2=Richard D. |last3=Van Straalen |first3=Nico M. |date=2008-03 |title=The unseen majority: soil microbes as drivers of plant diversity and productivity in terrestrial ecosystems |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01139.x |journal=Ecology Letters |language=en |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=296–310 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01139.x |issn=1461-023X}}</ref>. This functional and biological diversity allows ecosystems to better absorb shocks like heat, drought and heavy rain events, and maintain multiple functions simultaneously. Diversity can also provide services to human communities, such as flood mitigation and other [[Climate change adaptation|”’climate change adaptation”’]]<nowiki/>s, which makes biodiversity an important foundation for [[Nature-based solutions|”’Nature-based Solutions”’]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bongaarts |first=John |date=2019-09 |title=IPBES, 2019. Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science‐Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12283 |journal=Population and Development Review |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=680–681 |doi=10.1111/padr.12283 |issn=0098-7921}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191 |title=Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges |date=2016-08-04 |publisher=IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature |isbn=978-2-8317-1812-5 |editor-last=Cohen-Shacham |editor-first=E. |doi=10.2305/iucn.ch.2016.13.en |editor-last2=Walters |editor-first2=G. |editor-last3=Janzen |editor-first3=C. |editor-last4=Maginnis |editor-first4=S.}}</ref>.

[[Biodiversity]] is fundamental to multiple ecological mechanisms that strengthen the [[Ecological stability|stability]] and adaptability of ecosystems<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oliver |first=Tom H. |last2=Heard |first2=Matthew S. |last3=Isaac |first3=Nick J.B. |last4=Roy |first4=David B. |last5=Procter |first5=Deborah |last6=Eigenbrod |first6=Felix |last7=Freckleton |first7=Rob |last8=Hector |first8=Andy |last9=Orme |first9=C. David L. |last10=Petchey |first10=Owen L. |last11=Proença |first11=Vânia |last12=Raffaelli |first12=David |last13=Suttle |first13=K. Blake |last14=Mace |first14=Georgina M. |last15=Martín-López |first15=Berta |date=2015-11 |title=Biodiversity and Resilience of Ecosystem Functions |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169534715002189 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |language=en |volume=30 |issue=11 |pages=673–684 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2015.08.009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reusch |first=Thorsten B. H. |last2=Ehlers |first2=Anneli |last3=Hämmerli |first3=August |last4=Worm |first4=Boris |date=2005-02-22 |title=Ecosystem recovery after climatic extremes enhanced by genotypic diversity |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.0500008102 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=102 |issue=8 |pages=2826–2831 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0500008102 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=549506 |pmid=15710890}}</ref>. [[Species richness]] increases [[Functional group (ecology)|functional diversity]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tilman |first=David |last2=Knops |first2=Johannes |last3=Wedin |first3=David |last4=Reich |first4=Peter |last5=Ritchie |first5=Mark |last6=Siemann |first6=Evan |date=1997-08-29 |title=The Influence of Functional Diversity and Composition on Ecosystem Processes |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.277.5330.1300 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=277 |issue=5330 |pages=1300–1302 |doi=10.1126/science.277.5330.1300 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>. Different organisms living together can perform complementary roles in ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and water regulation, which can contribute to the stabilisation of ecosystem processes under climate stress, a mechanism known as [[Ecological niche|niche]] complementarity<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Godoy |first=Oscar |last2=Gómez-Aparicio |first2=Lorena |last3=Matías |first3=Luis |last4=Pérez-Ramos |first4=Ignacio M. |last5=Allan |first5=Eric |date=2020-08-21 |title=An excess of niche differences maximizes ecosystem functioning |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-17960-5 |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=4180 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17960-5 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=7442808 |pmid=32826915}}</ref>.  An ecosystem with high plant diversity can, for example, enhance transpiration and soil moisture regulation as the variety of different leaf traits and root depths can promote more efficient water use, which in turn can reduce drought stress and mitigate heat impact<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grossiord |first=Charlotte |last2=Granier |first2=André |last3=Ratcliffe |first3=Sophia |last4=Bouriaud |first4=Olivier |last5=Bruelheide |first5=Helge |last6=Chećko |first6=Ewa |last7=Forrester |first7=David Ian |last8=Dawud |first8=Seid Muhie |last9=Finér |first9=Leena |last10=Pollastrini |first10=Martina |last11=Scherer-Lorenzen |first11=Michael |last12=Valladares |first12=Fernando |last13=Bonal |first13=Damien |last14=Gessler |first14=Arthur |date=2014-10-14 |title=Tree diversity does not always improve resistance of forest ecosystems to drought |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1411970111 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=111 |issue=41 |pages=14812–14815 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1411970111 |pmc=4205672 |pmid=25267642}}</ref>. Climate change is associated with higher [[pathogen]] pressure on ecosystems<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harvell |first=C. Drew |last2=Mitchell |first2=Charles E. |last3=Ward |first3=Jessica R. |last4=Altizer |first4=Sonia |last5=Dobson |first5=Andrew P. |last6=Ostfeld |first6=Richard S. |last7=Samuel |first7=Michael D. |date=2002-06-21 |title=Climate Warming and Disease Risks for Terrestrial and Marine Biota |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1063699 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=296 |issue=5576 |pages=2158–2162 |doi=10.1126/science.1063699 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>.  In many ecosystems higher biodiversity has been shown to contribute to greater [[Ecological resilience|resilience]] to pests and diseases, as diversity in host traits and interactions can interrupt disease spread and reduce the severity of the outbreak compared to low diversity systems<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keesing |first=Felicia |last2=Belden |first2=Lisa K. |last3=Daszak |first3=Peter |last4=Dobson |first4=Andrew |last5=Harvell |first5=C. Drew |last6=Holt |first6=Robert D. |last7=Hudson |first7=Peter |last8=Jolles |first8=Anna |last9=Jones |first9=Kate E. |last10=Mitchell |first10=Charles E. |last11=Myers |first11=Samuel S. |last12=Bogich |first12=Tiffany |last13=Ostfeld |first13=Richard S. |date=2010-12 |title=Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature09575 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=468 |issue=7324 |pages=647–652 |doi=10.1038/nature09575 |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=7094913 |pmid=21124449}}</ref>. [[Genetic diversity]] within a species further enhances its adaptive capacity by providing a range of traits that allow populations to persist under changing temperature and precipitation regimes<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reusch |first=Thorsten B. H. |last2=Ehlers |first2=Anneli |last3=Hämmerli |first3=August |last4=Worm |first4=Boris |date=2005-02-22 |title=Ecosystem recovery after climatic extremes enhanced by genotypic diversity |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.0500008102 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=102 |issue=8 |pages=2826–2831 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0500008102 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=549506 |pmid=15710890}}</ref>. Furthermore, more complex ecosystems with higher biodiversity support [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] interactions (like [[pollination]] or [[Mycorrhizal network|mycorrhizal networks]]), which can enhance nutrient uptake and support overall productivity and resilience of ecosystems<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Der Heijden |first=Marcel G. A. |last2=Bardgett |first2=Richard D. |last3=Van Straalen |first3=Nico M. |date=2008-03 |title=The unseen majority: soil microbes as drivers of plant diversity and productivity in terrestrial ecosystems |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01139.x |journal=Ecology Letters |language=en |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=296–310 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01139.x |issn=1461-023X}}</ref>. This functional and biological diversity allows ecosystems to better absorb shocks like heat, drought and heavy rain events, and maintain multiple functions simultaneously. Diversity can also provide services to human communities, such as flood mitigation and other [[climate change adaptation]]<nowiki/>s, which makes biodiversity an important foundation for [[Nature-based solutions|Nature-based Solutions]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bongaarts |first=John |date=2019-09 |title=IPBES, 2019. Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science‐Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12283 |journal=Population and Development Review |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=680–681 |doi=10.1111/padr.12283 |issn=0098-7921}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191 |title=Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges |date=2016-08-04 |publisher=IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature |isbn=978-2-8317-1812-5 |editor-last=Cohen-Shacham |editor-first=E. |doi=10.2305/iucn.ch.2016.13.en |editor-last2=Walters |editor-first2=G. |editor-last3=Janzen |editor-first3=C. |editor-last4=Maginnis |editor-first4=S.}}</ref>.

==== Example in long-running grassland study ====

==== Example in long-running grassland study ====

[[Grassland|”’Grasslands”’]] play a crucial role for biodiversity and [[Ecosystem|”’ecosystem”’]] functioning, delivering essential [[Ecosystem service|ecosystem goods and ”’services”’]]<ref name=”:0″>{{Cite journal |last=Hossain |first=Md Lokman |last2=Li |first2=Jianfeng |last3=Hoffmann |first3=Samuel |last4=Beierkuhnlein |first4=Carl |date=2022-06-25 |title=Biodiversity showed positive effects on resistance but mixed effects on resilience to climatic extremes in a long-term grassland experiment |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969722014152 |journal=Science of The Total Environment |volume=827 |pages=154322 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154322 |issn=0048-9697}}</ref>. Resistance and resilience are two important factors to assess ecosystem dynamics under [[Climate change|”’climate change”’]]<ref name=”:0″ />. Resistance refers to an ecosystem’s ability to maintain its functioning during climatic extremes; resilience refers to its ability to recover and return to its pre-disturbance state<ref name=”:0″ />.

[[Grassland|Grasslands]] play a crucial role for biodiversity and [[ecosystem]] functioning, delivering essential [[Ecosystem service|ecosystem goods and services]]<ref name=”:0″>{{Cite journal |last=Hossain |first=Md Lokman |last2=Li |first2=Jianfeng |last3=Hoffmann |first3=Samuel |last4=Beierkuhnlein |first4=Carl |date=2022-06-25 |title=Biodiversity showed positive effects on resistance but mixed effects on resilience to climatic extremes in a long-term grassland experiment |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969722014152 |journal=Science of The Total Environment |volume=827 |pages=154322 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154322 |issn=0048-9697}}</ref>. Resistance and resilience are two important factors to assess ecosystem dynamics under [[climate change]]<ref name=”:0″ />. Resistance refers to an ecosystem’s ability to maintain its functioning during climatic extremes; resilience refers to its ability to recover and return to its pre-disturbance state<ref name=”:0″ />.

A long-running study by Hossain and colleagues in 2022 examined how [[Species richness|”’species richness”’]] influences ecosystem resistance and resilience over multiple decades<ref name=”:0″ />. Climatic conditions were classified by intensity (mild, moderate, and extreme) and direction (dry and wet)<ref name=”:0″ />.  

A long-running study by Hossain and colleagues in 2022 examined how [[species richness]] influences ecosystem resistance and resilience over multiple decades<ref name=”:0″ />. Climatic conditions were classified by intensity (mild, moderate, and extreme) and direction (dry and wet)<ref name=”:0″ />.

On the one hand, they found that species richness increased the grassland resistance under both climatic directions, indicating that more diverse plant communities were more likely to maintain [[Productivity (ecology)|”’productivity”’]] during periods of climatic stress. On the other hand, species richness decreased grassland ecosystem resilience under all dry climatic extremes. They found no effects on ecosystem resilience toward wet climatic extremes<ref name=”:0″ />.

See also:

See also:

”’[[Ecological effects of biodiversity]]”’ {{User sandbox}}

[[Ecological effects of biodiversity]] {{User sandbox}}

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<!– EDIT BELOW THIS LINE –>

[to be inserted in the Biodiversity Wikipedia page]

Biodiversity is fundamental to multiple ecological mechanisms that strengthen the stability and adaptability of ecosystems^[1][2]. Species richness increases functional diversity^[3]. Different organisms living together can perform complementary roles in ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and water regulation, which can contribute to the stabilisation of ecosystem processes under climate stress, a mechanism known as niche complementarity^[4].  An ecosystem with high plant diversity can, for example, enhance transpiration and soil moisture regulation as the variety of different leaf traits and root depths can promote more efficient water use, which in turn can reduce drought stress and mitigate heat impact^[5]. Climate change is associated with higher pathogen pressure on ecosystems^[6].  In many ecosystems higher biodiversity has been shown to contribute to greater resilience to pests and diseases, as diversity in host traits and interactions can interrupt disease spread and reduce the severity of the outbreak compared to low diversity systems^[7]. Genetic diversity within a species further enhances its adaptive capacity by providing a range of traits that allow populations to persist under changing temperature and precipitation regimes^[8]. Furthermore, more complex ecosystems with higher biodiversity support mutualistic interactions (like pollination or mycorrhizal networks), which can enhance nutrient uptake and support overall productivity and resilience of ecosystems^[9]. This functional and biological diversity allows ecosystems to better absorb shocks like heat, drought and heavy rain events, and maintain multiple functions simultaneously. Diversity can also provide services to human communities, such as flood mitigation and other climate change adaptations, which makes biodiversity an important foundation for Nature-based Solutions^[10][11].

Grasslands play a crucial role for biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, delivering essential ecosystem goods and services^[12]. Resistance and resilience are two important factors to assess ecosystem dynamics under climate change^[12]. Resistance refers to an ecosystem’s ability to maintain its functioning during climatic extremes; resilience refers to its ability to recover and return to its pre-disturbance state^[12].

A long-running study by Hossain and colleagues in 2022 examined how species richness influences ecosystem resistance and resilience over multiple decades^[12]. Climatic conditions were classified by intensity (mild, moderate, and extreme) and direction (dry and wet)^[12]. On the one hand, they found that species richness increased the grassland resistance under both climatic directions, indicating that more diverse plant communities were more likely to maintain productivity during periods of climatic stress. On the other hand, species richness decreased grassland ecosystem resilience under all dry climatic extremes. They found no effects on ecosystem resilience toward wet climatic extremes^[12].

See also:

Ecological effects of biodiversity

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