== Khok Phanom Di ==
== Khok Phanom Di ==
”’Khok Phanom Di (โคกพนมดี)”’ is a deeply stratified prehistoric mound located in the Chonburi Province, Central Thailand, situated on the eastern margin of the Bangkok Plain in the lower reaches of the Bang Pakong River. [Higham 1992] Excavations conducted in 1984–1985 revealed a layer of cultural material seven meters thick, representing a long history of occupation. [Higham 2014] Radiocarbon dating indicates the site was occupied for approximately five centuries, spanning the period between roughly 2000 and 1500 BCE. [Higham 1992] When first settled, Khok Phanom Di was located on a large estuary, a remarkably rich naturally-replenished food resource, supported by a mangrove-dominated shore. [Higham 2014] The site’s rapid growth in height, reaching up to 12 meters above the surrounding rice fields, was due to the regular deposition of mollusk remains forming shell middens, and waste from pottery manufacture. [Higham 1992]
”’Khok Phanom Di (โคกพนมดี)”’ is a deeply stratified prehistoric mound located in the Chonburi Province, Central Thailand, situated on the eastern margin of the Bangkok Plain in the lower reaches of the Bang Pakong River. [Higham 1992] Excavations conducted in 1984–1985 revealed a layer of cultural material seven meters thick, representing a long history of occupation. [Higham 2014] Radiocarbon dating indicates the site was occupied for approximately five centuries, spanning the period between roughly 2000 and 1500 BCE. [Higham 1992] When first settled, Khok Phanom Di was located on a large estuary, a remarkably rich naturally-replenished food resource, supported by a mangrove-dominated shore. [Higham 2014] The site’s rapid growth in height, reaching up to 12 meters above the surrounding rice fields, was due to the regular deposition of mollusk remains forming shell middens, and waste from pottery manufacture. [Higham 1992]
The site provides crucial insight into human adaptation to a changing tropical coastal habitat and subsequent social dynamics over roughly 20 generations. [Higham 1992] Excavations uncovered a significant cemetery containing 154 burials, where individuals were interred alongside ancestors, often arranged in sequential clusters. [Higham 2014] The inhabitants were specialized coastal hunter-gatherers, exploiting the abundant marine resources and cultivating rice, alongside taking advantage of their environment to yield shell jewelry and high-quality potting clay. [Higham 1992] The long occupation sequence saw profound environmental change, including a dramatic shift in coastline and the possible relocation of the Bang Pakong River channel, which reduced easy access to marine resources. [Higham 1992] These environmental shifts coincided with notable changes in mortuary ritual, physical activity (such as reduced upper body strength in men), and wealth distribution. [Higham 1992] Khok Phanom Di was additionally a prominent pottery-making center, and in later mortuary phases, specific women and infants were interred with extraordinary wealth, including vast amounts of exotic shell jewelry and tools of the pottery trade, suggesting that women attained high social status through the manufacture and exchange of ceramics. [Higham 1992]
The site provides crucial insight into human adaptation to a changing tropical coastal habitat and subsequent social dynamics over roughly 20 generations. [Higham 1992] Excavations uncovered a significant cemetery containing 154 burials, where individuals were interred alongside ancestors, often arranged in sequential clusters. [Higham 2014] The inhabitants were specialized coastal hunter-gatherers, exploiting the abundant marine resources and cultivating rice, alongside taking advantage of their environment to yield shell jewelry and high-quality potting clay. [Higham 1992] The long occupation sequence saw profound environmental change, including a dramatic shift in coastline and the possible relocation of the Bang Pakong River channel, which reduced easy access to marine resources. [Higham 1992] These environmental shifts coincided with notable changes in mortuary ritual, physical activity (such as reduced upper body strength in men), and wealth distribution. [Higham 1992] Khok Phanom Di was additionally a prominent pottery-making center, and in later mortuary phases, specific women and infants were interred with extraordinary wealth, including vast amounts of exotic shell jewelry and tools of the pottery trade, suggesting that women attained high social status through the manufacture and exchange of ceramics. [Higham 1992]
=== Mortuary Phase 3 ===
=== Mortuary Phase 3 ===
The third MP, dated to the 18th to 19th century BCE [Higham 2022] marks a significant advancement in the culture of the people of Khok Phanom Di. Much like the second MP, the grave are grouped into tight clusters, often directly over the top of those from the previous mortuary phase. [Higham 2022] The combination of women, men, and children, all pointing east, within the clusters continued as well. [Higham 2022] The burials during this phase were within a thick shell midden that had straight edges and right angles, suggesting that the shell were originally contained within a manmade structure that decomposed over time. [Higham 2022] Charles Higham speculates this may have been evidence of wooden mortuary chambers. [Higham 2022] Grave goods during this MP continued to consist of shell beads and pottery. [Higham 2022]
Start talking about the environment and rice here. Maybe even a new subheading if we’re feeling daring
=== Mortuary Phase 4 ===
=== Mortuary Phase 4 ===
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Khok Phanom Di (โคกพนมดี) is a deeply stratified prehistoric mound located in the Chonburi Province, Central Thailand, situated on the eastern margin of the Bangkok Plain in the lower reaches of the Bang Pakong River. [Higham 1992] Excavations conducted in 1984–1985 by archeologist Charles Franklin Wandesforde Higham revealed a layer of cultural material seven meters thick, representing a long history of occupation. [Higham 2014] Radiocarbon dating indicates the site was occupied for approximately five centuries, spanning the period between roughly 2000 and 1500 BCE. [Higham 1992] When first settled, Khok Phanom Di was located on a large estuary, a remarkably rich naturally-replenished food resource, supported by a mangrove-dominated shore. [Higham 2014] The site’s rapid growth in height, reaching up to 12 meters above the surrounding rice fields, was due to the regular deposition of mollusk remains forming shell middens, and waste from pottery manufacture. [Higham 1992]
The site provides crucial insight into human adaptation to a changing tropical coastal habitat and subsequent social dynamics over roughly 20 generations. [Higham 1992] Excavations uncovered a significant cemetery containing 154 burials, where individuals were interred alongside ancestors, often arranged in sequential clusters. [Higham 2014] The inhabitants were specialized coastal hunter-gatherers, exploiting the abundant marine resources and cultivating rice, alongside taking advantage of their environment to yield shell jewelry and high-quality potting clay. [Higham 1992] The long occupation sequence saw profound environmental change, including a dramatic shift in coastline and the possible relocation of the Bang Pakong River channel, which reduced easy access to marine resources. [Higham 1992] These environmental shifts coincided with notable changes in mortuary ritual, physical activity (such as reduced upper body strength in men), and wealth distribution. [Higham 1992] Khok Phanom Di was additionally a prominent pottery-making center, and in later mortuary phases, specific women and infants were interred with extraordinary wealth, including vast amounts of exotic shell jewelry and tools of the pottery trade, suggesting that women attained high social status through the manufacture and exchange of ceramics. [Higham 1992]
The cultural material at Khok Phanom Di has been divided into 6 distinct groups based on age and similarities in the burials within them. This has allowed scholars to present a clear progression of life at Khok Phanom Di as culture and their environment shifted.
The first mortuary phase (MP) has been defined by the first individuals and cultural remains that were interred at the site, thus dating to roughly around 2000 BCE. [Higham 2022]. The lowest layer has been noted to have similarities with the nearby archeological site Nong Nor, and may represent a resettling of this older site’s inhabitants. [Higham 2022]. Found in this phase is ash and charcoal, which are suspected to be related to pottery firing, based on a nearby pit with 21 burnishing stones and a clay anvil. [Higham 2022] A second pit in this phase contained two pottery vessels and seven polished stone adze heads. [Higham 2022] Other artifacts within this layer include an awl, whetstones, and fishing hooks. [Higham 2022]
Six individuals were found belonging to the first MP: two men, a woman, and three infants. [Higham 2022] One of the infants, aged approximately two and a half years old, was buried in a flexed position, while the others were laying flat with their heads to the east. [Higham 2022] Twelve shell beads were found alongside one of the men, and traces of red ochre were detected on the remains of one of the infants, indicating minimal attention to grave goods during this time. [Higham 2022]
The second MP shares much of its material culture with the first, still containing similar clay anvils, awls, fishhooks, and pottery, but is distinguished by very different burial practices. [Higham 2022] The individuals buried that have been associated with MP2 are now placed in six tight clusters in a checkerboard pattern, [Higham 1992] and each cluster contains men, women, and children. [Higham 2022] The vast majority of the burials continued to be laid flat with their heads pointing east, and though grave goods are still more sparse than during later MPs, 25 intricate decorated pots were unearthed alongside the buried. [Higham 2022] One of the men was interred with a large number of shell beads, [Higham 1992] one of the women had multiple burnishing stones, [Higham 2022], and mineralized wood under some of the burials indicates funeral practices of some sort [Higham 2014] MP2 is also noted as having a very high number of infant burials. [Higham 2022]
The practices in this phase of the site are distinct and set it apart from the first phase, with shifts in burial methodology and the adoption of more numerous and more ornate grave goods. The tightly grouped burials are not seen reproduced by other coastal Southeast Asian settlements, [Higham 2022] and the styles of the decorated pots do not match with those of inland Neolithic settlements. [Higham 2022]
The third MP, dated to the 18th to 19th century BCE [Higham 2022] marks a significant advancement in the culture of the people of Khok Phanom Di. Much like the second MP, the grave are grouped into tight clusters, often directly over the top of those from the previous mortuary phase. [Higham 2022] The combination of women, men, and children, all pointing east, within the clusters continued as well. [Higham 2022] The burials during this phase were within a thick shell midden that had straight edges and right angles, suggesting that the shell were originally contained within a manmade structure that decomposed over time. [Higham 2022] Charles Higham speculates this may have been evidence of wooden mortuary chambers. [Higham 2022] Grave goods during this MP continued to consist of shell beads and pottery. [Higham 2022]
Start talking about the environment and rice here. Maybe even a new subheading if we’re feeling daring
Princess of Khok Phanom Di
[edit]
After finishing writing, going to replace all parentheticals with wiki citation number things, then can use the “insert > references list” tool to auto-generate this part for me
