Swedish invasion of Norway (1716): Difference between revisions

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=== 26 February – 11 March ===

A proclamation to the Norwegian people was issued by Charles, stating that the goal of the Swedish invasion was to convince Frederick IV to sign a peace treaty.{{Sfn|Hatton|1968|p=417}}{{Sfn|Liljegren|2000|p=290}} On 26 February, the Swedes crossed the border into Norway. The Norwegians had left a force at [[Høland]], [[Battle of Høland|which was caught off guard and captured by the Swedish]] [[vanguard]]. However, a determined counterattack by Colonel Kruse’s 200 [[dragoon]]s{{Sfn|Generalstaben|1927|p=86}} had led to the near capture of Charles, with 7 Swedes killed and many more wounded. Additionally, [[Frederick I of Sweden|Prince Frederick]] and [[Stanisław Poniatowski (1676–1762)|Stanisław Poniatowski]] were badly wounded in the fighting, to the point where they had to return to Sweden. The Swedes held off the Norwegian assault, and Colonel Kruse was eventually taken prisoner, who was then praised by Charles for his bravery in the battle the following day. That day, however, Norwegian reinforcements arrived in the form of several hundred men at [[Rakkestad]]. Aware of the fighting, they decided against attacking. Charles chose not to attack, as his cavalry were in a poor state and his infantry were few in number.{{Sfn|Lagermark|1883|pp=22-23}}

==== Fall of Christiania ====

A severe [[Winter storm|snowstorm]] meant that the planned advance on Christiania was delayed, and the Swedes stayed in Høland for two days, though troops were sent out to locate Norwegian forces. The Norwegians took advantage of the Swedes’ inaction by organizing the defense of Christiania and positioning men east of it. On 1 March, the Swedes advanced from Høland towards Svindal, with the [[Glomma]] being crossed the following day. Colonel [[Schlippenbach]] attempted to break through the Norwegian position at Bakåsen, but failed due to the heavy snow. Charles concluded that it would be impossible to break through, and thus he withdrew to Stalsberg, where the Swedes encamped. The Norwegian position at Gjelleråsen was reconnoitered by Charles himself the next day. Once more, he concluded that an assault would be impossible due to the large number of Norwegian reinforcements. Thus, he decided to combine forces with Mörner’s force to outflank the Norwegians. Mörner’s advance north of Moss, which began on 27 February, was almost entirely unopposed due to Lützow’s decision to divert troops to face Charles. Mörner arrived in [[Hafslund]] on 2 March, and Moss on 6 March. Mörner had sent detachments to locate Charles’s army on 7 March, and the following day, Mörner linked up with Charles’s army in force. With both armies united, Charles advanced from [[Hølen]], hoping to engage the Norwegians in a [[pitched battle]], but their attempts at delaying Charles had meant the Swedes had to cross the [[Bunnefjorden|Bundefjord]] on 10 March. The Norwegians, after utilizing Akershus Fortress to delay the Swedes, withdrew across the ice. Lützow, after convening a [[Council of war|Council of War]], decided to withdraw from Christiania. Christiania was occupied between 10 – 11 March, with the Swedes meeting little opposition.{{Sfn|Hatton|1968|p=418}}{{Sfn|Wikander|1922|p=173}} Akershus was resupplied before the Norwegian ~~government~~ relocated to [[Drammen]], ~~with the army retreating to~~ Gjellebekk. The fall of Christiania had also led to widespread panic among the Norwegians. The Swedes, alas, had a roof over their heads at Christiania, and they were also able to obtain enough provisions. However, for the occupation of Christiania to be of any strategic importance, the fortress of Akershus had to be taken, and preparations soon began for its capture. It soon became apparent that Akershus would not fall to a simple storming and that heavy siege artillery would be required to capture it, while an attempt to force the fortress to capitulate by cutting off the waterways leading into it failed.

A severe [[Winter storm|snowstorm]] meant that the planned advance on Christiania was delayed, and the Swedes stayed in Høland for two days, though troops were sent out to locate Norwegian forces. The Norwegians took advantage of the Swedes’ inaction by organizing the defense of Christiania and positioning men east of it. On 1 March, the Swedes advanced from Høland towards Svindal, with the [[Glomma]] being crossed the following day. Colonel [[Schlippenbach]] attempted to break through the Norwegian position at Bakåsen, but failed due to the heavy snow. Charles concluded that it would be impossible to break through, and thus he withdrew to Stalsberg, where the Swedes encamped. The Norwegian position at Gjelleråsen was reconnoitered by Charles himself the next day. Once more, he concluded that an assault would be impossible due to the large number of Norwegian reinforcements. Thus, he decided to combine forces with Mörner’s force to outflank the Norwegians. Mörner’s advance north of Moss, which began on 27 February, was almost entirely unopposed due to Lützow’s decision to divert troops to face Charles. Mörner arrived in [[Hafslund]] on 2 March, and Moss on 6 March. Mörner had sent detachments to locate Charles’s army on 7 March, and the following day, Mörner linked up with Charles’s army in force. With both armies united, Charles advanced from [[Hølen]], hoping to engage the Norwegians in a [[pitched battle]], but their attempts at delaying Charles had meant the Swedes had to cross the [[Bunnefjorden|Bundefjord]] on 10 March. The Norwegians, after utilizing Akershus Fortress to delay the Swedes, withdrew across the ice. Lützow, after convening a [[Council of war|Council of War]], decided to withdraw from Christiania. Christiania was occupied between 10 – 11 March, with the Swedes meeting little opposition.{{Sfn|Hatton|1968|p=418}}{{Sfn|Wikander|1922|p=173}} Akershus was resupplied before the Norwegian relocated to [[Drammen]] Gjellebekk. The fall of Christiania had also led to widespread panic among the Norwegians. The Swedes, alas, had a roof over their heads at Christiania, and they were also able to obtain enough provisions. However, for the occupation of Christiania to be of any strategic importance, the fortress of Akershus had to be taken, and preparations soon began for its capture. It soon became apparent that Akershus would not fall to a simple storming and that heavy siege artillery would be required to capture it, while an attempt to force the fortress to capitulate by cutting off the waterways leading into it failed.

=== 11 March – 28 June ===

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{{blockquote|Your Majesty understands only how to advance and has no experience of the opposite movement; I request command of the rear guard and believe I can then answer for the army’s salvation.{{Sfn|Sjögren|1899|p=613}}}}

On 26 April, Delvig completed construction of the aforementioned bridge, ensuring communication lines with Sweden were safe. Rather than fully retreat, Charles established his headquarters at Torpum near Frederikshald, remaining there for eight weeks{{Sfn|Sjögren|1899|p=614}} while awaiting supplies from Gothenburg.{{Sfn|Hatton|1968|p=420}} On 22 June, to break the stalemate, Charles launched a surprise night assault on Frederiksten Fortress with 1,500 men, but the Swedes had lost the element of surprise. Though they captured Fredrikshald, Fredriksten held, and its commander set fire to Fredrikshald to force a Swedish withdrawal. The attack led to 500 casualties, including Major General Delvig. A few days later, the Danes [[Battle of Dynekilen|destroyed the Swedish supply convoy at Dynekilen]]. The setbacks at Fredrikshald and Dynekilen forced the Swedes’ complete withdrawal from Norway on 28 – 29 June.{{Sfn|Sjögren|1899|p=617}}{{Sfn|Lagermark|1883|p=72}}{{Sfn|Hatton|1968|pp=421}} [[File:Oversigtkort over Dynekilen slaget 1716.png|thumb|325x325px|Battle of Dynekilen.]]

== Aftermath ==

Invasion of Norway during the Great Northern War

The Swedish invasion of Norway in 1716 was led by Charles XII and took place during the Great Northern War. Despite taking the Norwegian capital of Christiania, the Swedes failed to capture the crucial fortresses of Akershus and Fredriksten. Additionally, they were crippled by logistical failures and harsh winter conditions. Charles was forced to abandon the campaign in late June, having failed to achieve any of his objectives.

By 1716, Sweden’s position was precarious, even after the return of Charles from the Ottoman Empire in 1715. Sweden had few allies left, mainly relying on Charles VI and Louis XIV, the latter of whom had renewed the Franco-Swedish alliance the previous year, providing Sweden with 600,000 riksdaler annually for 3 years, while also pressuring Charles to back the Jacobites.

Although Charles intended to cross the frozen Sound and compel Frederick IV to peace, a storm broke up the ice at the last minute, and he decided to focus on Norway instead.^{[note 1]} Charles had hoped to divert the attention of the coalition by opening a front in the west and to halt the planned invasion of Scania. Additionally, he hoped to place pressure on George I, who had recently joined the war against Sweden.^[3]

The main force, some 3,250 men^{[note 2]} under Charles was to march from Värmland toward Christiania, while General Mörner moved from Vänersborg on Moss to join him. General Ascheberg’s 800 cavalry feigned at Svinesund to deceive the Dano-Norwegians, and the forces in Jämtland^{[note 3]} were to cut off Norwegian reinforcements from the north.

26 February – 11 March

[edit]

A proclamation to the Norwegian people was issued by Charles, stating that the goal of the Swedish invasion was to convince Frederick IV to sign a peace treaty. On 26 February, the Swedes crossed the border into Norway. The Norwegians had left a force at Høland, which was caught off guard and captured by the Swedish vanguard. However, a determined counterattack by Colonel Kruse’s 200 dragoons had led to the near capture of Charles, with 7 Swedes killed and many more wounded. Additionally, Prince Frederick and Stanisław Poniatowski were badly wounded in the fighting, to the point where they had to return to Sweden. The Swedes held off the Norwegian assault, and Colonel Kruse was eventually taken prisoner, who was then praised by Charles for his bravery in the battle the following day. That day, however, Norwegian reinforcements arrived in the form of several hundred men at Rakkestad. Aware of the fighting, they decided against attacking. Charles chose not to attack, as his cavalry were in a poor state and his infantry were few in number.

Fall of Christiania

[edit]

A severe snowstorm meant that the planned advance on Christiania was delayed, and the Swedes stayed in Høland for two days, though troops were sent out to locate Norwegian forces. The Norwegians took advantage of the Swedes’ inaction by organizing the defense of Christiania and positioning men east of it. On 1 March, the Swedes advanced from Høland towards Svindal, with the Glomma being crossed the following day. Colonel Schlippenbach attempted to break through the Norwegian position at Bakåsen, but failed due to the heavy snow. Charles concluded that it would be impossible to break through, and thus he withdrew to Stalsberg, where the Swedes encamped. The Norwegian position at Gjelleråsen was reconnoitered by Charles himself the next day. Once more, he concluded that an assault would be impossible due to the large number of Norwegian reinforcements. Thus, he decided to combine forces with Mörner’s force to outflank the Norwegians. Mörner’s advance north of Moss, which began on 27 February, was almost entirely unopposed due to Lützow’s decision to divert troops to face Charles. Mörner arrived in Hafslund on 2 March, and Moss on 6 March. Mörner had sent detachments to locate Charles’s army on 7 March, and the following day, Mörner linked up with Charles’s army in force. With both armies united, Charles advanced from Hølen, hoping to engage the Norwegians in a pitched battle, but their attempts at delaying Charles had meant the Swedes had to cross the Bundefjord on 10 March. The Norwegians, after utilizing Akershus Fortress to delay the Swedes, withdrew across the ice. Lützow, after convening a Council of War, decided to withdraw from Christiania. Christiania was occupied between 10 – 11 March, with the Swedes meeting little opposition.^[19] Akershus was resupplied before the Norwegian forces relocated to Drammen and Gjellebekk. The fall of Christiania had also led to widespread panic among the Norwegians. The Swedes, alas, had a roof over their heads at Christiania, and they were also able to obtain enough provisions. However, for the occupation of Christiania to be of any strategic importance, the fortress of Akershus had to be taken, and preparations soon began for its capture. It soon became apparent that Akershus would not fall to a simple storming and that heavy siege artillery would be required to capture it, while an attempt to force the fortress to capitulate by cutting off the waterways leading into it failed.

11 March – 28 June

[edit]

Charles again hoped to lure the Norwegians into a pitched battle. To outflank the repositioned Norwegian army and gain further intel, Charles dispatched Colonels Löwenstierna and Bielke to achieve this. After driving back two outposts at Gjellebekk, Löwenstierna found the Norwegian position impossible to attack frontally, leading to his retreat to Ravnsborg. Charles then ordered Colonel Axel Löwen with 500 cavalry to flank through Hadeland and Ringerike while attacking from Ravnsborg simultaneously, but a position at Harestueskogen delayed Löwen’s march. Lützow, informed of the flanking maneuver, intercepted and captured Löwen as well as his force at Norderhov, with the remaining troops retreating to Christiania. Colonel Schlippenbach made the last attempt towards Bærum with Major Nieroth advancing to clear Krokskogen, but even after heavy losses, they could not break through the Norwegian position. Charles then reconnoitered the position himself on 22 March and concluded that any full-scale attack would be too costly.

By now, the Swedes’ lack of preparation and planning began to show. On 12 March, after much delay, General Ascheberg began his advance across the Svinesund. More importantly, however, the delay had allowed the Norwegians to reinforce their position and destroy all the timber needed for the construction of bridges between Fredrikshald and Spånvik.

Road to Fredrikshald

[edit]

When Mörner linked up with Charles, he left his baggage and many sick soldiers at Moss. Armed peasants defended the depot at Moss from Dalsland, led by Major Thesmar. The Norwegians attacked on 15 March and captured all the supplies, the sick, and 383 men, then withdrew in the morning. Afterwards, Charles sent Colonel Falkenberg to retake Moss and restore the connection with Ascheberg. Moss was retaken, with the Swedes only encountering some Norwegian farmers. Meanwhile, when Ascheberg reached Skjeberg, he was falsely informed by a Norwegian peasant that the Danes had landed troops at Fredrikstad. Alarmed, he withdrew back to Sweden on 26 – 27 March. His letter to Charles informing him of his decision was intercepted, and it was only on 9 April that Charles learned of his withdrawal. With the retreat of Ascheberg, the men in Christiania were entirely cut off from Sweden. Ascheberg was eventually sacked and arrested by Major General Delvig, who was dispatched with 500 cavalry to build a bridge over the Svinesund to bring in the much-needed guns from the Gothenburg Squadron, along with reinforcements.

The Swedish garrison at Moss, led by Colonel Falkenberg, put up a strong defense, but the Norwegians retook the town on 12 April. Colonel Falkenberg was killed, and the entire garrison of 600 was either killed or captured.

Charles’ position in Christiania was untenable due to Dano-Norwegian naval supremacy and the inaction of the Gothenburg Squadron. Thus, he and the army withdrew from the city on 19 April in forced marches, reaching the Glomma before Danish reinforcements could arrive. The Swedes crossed at Onstadsund on 21 April using makeshift rafts. When Charles requested to lead the rearguard, Major General Hamilton reportedly responded with:

Your Majesty understands only how to advance and has no experience of the opposite movement; I request command of the rear guard and believe I can then answer for the army’s salvation.

On 26 April, Delvig completed construction of the aforementioned bridge, ensuring communication lines with Sweden were safe. Rather than fully retreat, Charles established his headquarters at Torpum near Frederikshald, remaining there for eight weeks while awaiting supplies from Gothenburg. On 22 June, to break the stalemate, Charles launched a surprise night assault on Frederiksten Fortress with 1,500 men, but the Swedes had lost the element of surprise. Though they captured Fredrikshald, Fredriksten held, and its commander set fire to Fredrikshald to force a Swedish withdrawal. The attack led to 500 casualties, including Major General Delvig. A few days later, the Danes destroyed the Swedish supply convoy at Dynekilen. The setbacks at Fredrikshald and Dynekilen forced the Swedes’ complete withdrawal from Norway on 28 – 29 June.

While the Swedes withdrew across the Svinesund, Lützow ordered Tordenskjold to attack them. However, heavy fire and resistance compelled him to withdraw.

With an army of 43,500 men, Charles once more invaded Norway in 1718. The campaign concluded with his death at the Siege of Fredriksten, while Carl Gustaf Armfeldt’s army in Trøndelag was nearly destroyed in the Carolean Death March.

^ As Hatton notes, the invasion of Zealand may have served as a potential cover for the campaign in Norway.
^ 2,600 infantry and 650 cavalry.
^ This force consisted of 2,915 men and was commanded by Alexander Stromberg. Due to heavy snow, the planned advance into Røros was never executed.

26 February – 11 March

Fall of Christiania

11 March – 28 June

Road to Fredrikshald

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