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In the same year, the ”Epic Histories” also record that Shapur ordered an invasion of Iberia, which according to [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] was commanded by the Armenian defectors [[Cylaces]] and [[Arrabannes (Armenian noble)|Arrabannes]], to whom Shapur entrusted governance of the entire region.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|Lenski|2007|p=123}}.</ref> This army deposed King [[Sauromaces II]], son of the Roman ally [[Mirian III]], installing the pro-Persian [[Aspacures II]] in his place.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|p=21}}; {{harvnb|PLRE|pp=117, 809}}.</ref> The Persian forces then [[Siege of Artogerassa|besieged the fortress of Artogerassa]],{{sfn|PLRE|pp=108, 234}} defended by 11,000 men and 6,000 civilians under the command of Arshak’s daughter [[Parandzem]], together with [[Pap of Armenia|Pap]], the future king.<ref>{{harvnb|Lenski|2007|p=123}}; {{harvnb|Syvänne|2018|p=234}}.</ref>

In the same year, the ”Epic Histories” also record that Shapur ordered an invasion of Iberia, which according to [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] was commanded by the Armenian defectors [[Cylaces]] and [[Arrabannes (Armenian noble)|Arrabannes]], to whom Shapur entrusted governance of the entire region.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|Lenski|2007|p=123}}.</ref> This army deposed King [[Sauromaces II]], son of the Roman ally [[Mirian III]], installing the pro-Persian [[Aspacures II]] in his place.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|p=21}}; {{harvnb|PLRE|pp=117, 809}}.</ref> The Persian forces then [[Siege of Artogerassa|besieged the fortress of Artogerassa]],{{sfn|PLRE|pp=108, 234}} defended by 11,000 men and 6,000 civilians under the command of Arshak’s daughter [[Parandzem]], together with [[Pap of Armenia|Pap]], the future king.<ref>{{harvnb|Lenski|2007|p=123}}; {{harvnb|Syvänne|2018|p=234}}.</ref>

[[File:Last Battle of Queen Pharandzem.jpg|thumb|{{center|”Last Battle of Queen Pharandzem”, by Rubik Kocharian, 2013.}}]]

During the winter of 367–368,{{sfn|Lenski|2007|p=123}} as the siege of Artogerassa continued, Cylaces and Arrabannes defected to the Armenian side, collaborating with Parandzem to orchestrate a trap for the besieging forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Lenski|2002|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Syvänne|2018|p=234}}.</ref> In the resulting sortie, the Persians suffered defeat and Pap was liberated, subsequently escaping to seek assistance from Valens.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Lenski|2002|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Syvänne|2018|pp=234–235}}.</ref> He reached Valens’s court in [[Marcianopolis]] in March 368.<ref>{{harvnb|Lenski|2007|p=123}}; {{harvnb|Syvänne|2018|p=235}}.</ref> However, the emperor was unable to provide immediate aid due to ongoing Gothic invasions, delaying Roman intervention until 369.{{sfn|Lenski|2002|pp=171–172}} It was likely during this period that Arshak died, either by [[suicide]] or [[execution]].<ref>{{harvnb|Garsoïan|1989|pp=80, 352–353, 443}}; {{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|p=21}}.</ref>

During the winter of 367–368,{{sfn|Lenski|2007|p=123}} as the siege of Artogerassa continued, Cylaces and Arrabannes defected to the Armenian side, collaborating with Parandzem to orchestrate a trap for the besieging forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Lenski|2002|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Syvänne|2018|p=234}}.</ref> In the resulting sortie, the Persians suffered defeat and Pap was liberated, subsequently escaping to seek assistance from Valens.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Lenski|2002|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Syvänne|2018|pp=234–235}}.</ref> He reached Valens’s court in [[Marcianopolis]] in March 368.<ref>{{harvnb|Lenski|2007|p=123}}; {{harvnb|Syvänne|2018|p=235}}.</ref> However, the emperor was unable to provide immediate aid due to ongoing Gothic invasions, delaying Roman intervention until 369.{{sfn|Lenski|2002|pp=171–172}} It was likely during this period that Arshak died, either by [[suicide]] or [[execution]].<ref>{{harvnb|Garsoïan|1989|pp=80, 352–353, 443}}; {{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|p=21}}.</ref>

Background

The Roman Eastern frontier in 387 and 571 respectively.

After Julian’s Persian expedition of 363, Rome was forced to sign a “shameful” peace treaty, according to Roman historians. Mesopotamia was divided into two parts, one occupied by the Sasanians, and the other one held by the Romans.[3]

As for Armenia, while some historians speak of a complete abandonment of the region, namely Zosimus and Libanius, others, such as Ammianus, claim that Rome was only forbidden to impose a successor for Armenia, namely Arshak II and his son, Pap.[5] Nevertheless, Shapur started preparations for an invasion of the region the next year.[6]

War

Sasanian invasions of 364

According to Ammianus Marcellinus, in 364, the Sasanian army invaded Armenia.[7] Shapur II personally commanded the invasion but was repulsed by the Armenians. He then divided his army into three columns for a second invasion. The first two were led by Andikan and Hazarawuxt, while the king himself commanded the third. The Armenian king, Arshak II, hastily divided his army into three columns as well: the first two led by Bagoas and Vasak, and the third by himself.

Hazarawuxt led an army into Armenia,[nb 1] and encountered the Armenian army near a place called Ereweal in Vanand district. In the ensuing engagement, the Persians suffered very heavy losses and were forced to retreat. Vasak’s army of 11,000 men dispersed the Persian forces and killed their commander, Hazarawuxt. Andikan’s invasion fared no better, as most of the Persian soldiers were slaughtered near a town called Arest in Turuberan district. During the battle, Bagoas struck Andikan’s elephant and killed him. However, he also perished when the elephant fell on him.

Shapur himself was compelled to make camp at Osxay, near Satala in Basean district. However, his forces were defeated by the Armenian army led by Arshak himself, who launched a night attack on the camp, forcing Shapur to flee alone on horseback. After several unsuccessful attempts to invade Armenia, Shapur shifted strategy, seeking instead to persuade Armenian naxarars to defect to his side.

Defection of the Armenians to Shapur’s side

From 364 to 366, Shapur pursued a strategy of expanding his influence in Armenia through bribery, diplomacy, and limited military action, successfully securing the allegiance of numerous Armenian naxarars.[15] He administered the newly acquired territories through two governors (mobeds), continued the persecution of Christians by compelling their conversion to Zoroastrianism, and, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, actively courted political support from Armenian nobles and satraps.

Portrait head of Valens on a modern bust historically mislabelled as Constantine, Uffizi.

Faustus of Byzantium alternatively reports that Shapur employed threats against those who refused to join his cause. Shapur achieved a significant diplomatic victory by securing the defection of Meruzhan Artsruni, the satrap of Sophene, a region that had remained under Roman control according to the terms of the 363 treaty.

In the summer of 365, Valens relocated from Constantinople to Antioch to monitor potential Sasanian movements. This deployment may have been prompted by a Sasanian invasion of the “holy cities” reported by Zosimus and dated to the early years of Valens’s reign. However, the emperor was compelled to halt his advance due to an invasion by the Thervingian Goths.

Despite this interruption, Valens maintained troops along the frontier due to continuing concerns about Persian aggression before returning to Constantinople in July 365. He subsequently advanced as far as Cappadocia but was again forced to withdraw due to the intense late summer heat. Valens then returned to Constantinople, where he would remain for the next five years.

Continuation of the war, 366–368

In 366, Shapur launched a devastating invasion of Armenia while Valens remained preoccupied with Gothic incursions. Persian forces penetrated as far as Ani in Acilisene, near Satala along the Euphrates. A battle ensued near the city and ended in stalemate. Shapur then ordered the capture of King Arshak II of Armenia,[22] though rather than being taken prisoner, Arshak was compelled to defect to the Persian side.

Faustus of Byzantium‘s Epic Histories recount the subsequent events with characteristic legendary embellishment. After celebrating the king’s defection, Shapur allegedly devised a loyalty test, preparing a tent with its floor divided between Persian and Armenian soil. When standing on Persian earth, Arshak proclaimed his allegiance to Shapur, but upon stepping onto Armenian soil, he denounced the Shah and vowed to attack him. Following this demonstration of divided loyalty, Shapur ordered Arshak blinded and imprisoned in the Castle of Oblivion.[24]

In the same year, the Epic Histories also record that Shapur ordered an invasion of Iberia, which according to Ammianus Marcellinus was commanded by the Armenian defectors Cylaces and Arrabannes, to whom Shapur entrusted governance of the entire region.[25] This army deposed King Sauromaces II, son of the Roman ally Mirian III, installing the pro-Persian Aspacures II in his place.[26] The Persian forces then besieged the fortress of Artogerassa, defended by 11,000 men and 6,000 civilians under the command of Arshak’s daughter Parandzem, together with Pap, the future king.[28]

Last Battle of Queen Pharandzem, by Rubik Kocharian, 2013.

During the winter of 367–368, as the siege of Artogerassa continued, Cylaces and Arrabannes defected to the Armenian side, collaborating with Parandzem to orchestrate a trap for the besieging forces.[30] In the resulting sortie, the Persians suffered defeat and Pap was liberated, subsequently escaping to seek assistance from Valens.[31] He reached Valens’s court in Marcianopolis in March 368.[32] However, the emperor was unable to provide immediate aid due to ongoing Gothic invasions, delaying Roman intervention until 369. It was likely during this period that Arshak died, either by suicide or execution.[34]

In 369, Emperor Valens received envoys from Cylaces and Artabanes requesting Roman assistance in restoring Pap to the Armenian throne. This time the emperor agreed, dispatching General Terentius to reinstall Pap as king.[36] Upon learning of this Roman intervention, Shapur personally invaded Armenia, forcing Pap to flee to Lazica and definitively ending the siege of Artogerassa by capturing the city.[38] The Persians seized the royal treasury and captured Parandzem, who was subsequently raped and murdered. The Armenian capital of Artaxata was then taken and destroyed. Upon returning to Persia, Shapur appointed regional governors called ostikans to administer the conquered territories.

Notes

  1. ^ The Armenian Epic Histories (also known as Buzandaran Patmut’iwnk’) frequently provide exaggerated figures when describing military forces of Armenian naxarars (nobles) serving under Persia, a common feature of ancient historiography.

References

  1. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, pp. 4–5; Lenski 2002, p. 163.
  2. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, pp. 1–3; Lenski 2002, p. 164.
  3. ^ Garsoïan 1989, p. 378; Potter 2004, pp. 520, 527.
  4. ^ Dignas & Winter 2007, p. 183; Lenski 2002, pp. 141–142, 167; Syvänne 2018, p. 231.
  5. ^ Drijvers 2016, p. 576; Syvänne 2018, pp. 231–232.
  6. ^ Drijvers 2016, p. 576; Syvänne 2018, p. 232.
  7. ^ Garsoïan 1989, p. 443; Greatrex & Lieu 2005, p. 21; Lenski 2007, p. 123.
  8. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2005, pp. 21–22; Lenski 2007, p. 123.
  9. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2005, p. 21; PLRE, pp. 117, 809.
  10. ^ Lenski 2007, p. 123; Syvänne 2018, p. 234.
  11. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2005, p. 22; Lenski 2002, p. 171; Syvänne 2018, p. 234.
  12. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2005, p. 22; Lenski 2002, p. 171; Syvänne 2018, pp. 234–235.
  13. ^ Lenski 2007, p. 123; Syvänne 2018, p. 235.
  14. ^ Garsoïan 1989, pp. 80, 352–353, 443; Greatrex & Lieu 2005, p. 21.
  15. ^ Garsoïan 1989, p. 307; Greatrex & Lieu 2005, p. 23; Lenski 2007, p. 124; PLRE, p. 881.
  16. ^ Lenski 2002, p. 172; Syvänne 2018, p. 236.

Bibliography

Books

  • Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007). Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-61918-2.
  • Drijvers, Jan Willem (2016). “Ammianus Marcellinus, King Pap and the Dominance over Armenia”. In Binder, Carsten; Börm, Henning; Luther, Andreas (eds.). Diwan: Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean. Duisburg, Germany: Wellem Verlag. pp. 571–590. ISBN 978-3-941820-24-1.
  • Hughes, Ian (2013). Imperial Brothers: Valentinian, Valens and the Disaster at Adrianople. Barnsley, South Yorkshire, England: Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-473-82863-6.
  • Lenski, Noel Emmanuel (2007). “The Chronology Of Valens’ Dealings With Persia And Armenia, 364–378”. In den Boeft, J.; Drijvers, Jan Willem; den Hengst, D.; Teitler, H. C. (eds.). Ammianus after Julian. The Reign of Valentinian and Valens in Books 26–31 of the Res Gestae. Leiden, Netherlands: BRILL. pp. 95–127. ISBN 978-90-47-42151-1.
  • Syvänne, Ilkka (2018). The Military History of Late Rome, AD 361–395. Barnsley, South Yorkshire, England: Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-783-46273-5.

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